tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-30644882556331855482024-02-02T08:15:40.286-08:00The Paladin ChroniclesLatest news in the Paladin Chronicles series The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.comBlogger29125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-20392063171730793252023-11-30T18:34:00.000-08:002023-11-30T22:23:14.119-08:00Ancient History blog list <p style="text-align: center;">Ancient History Blogs </p><p><span style="text-align: center;">Sign up for my blogs, Neil Port, writer news</span><span style="text-align: center;"> </span><span style="color: cyan; text-align: center;"><a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a> </span></p><p><span style="color: cyan; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="text-align: center;">Privacy Policy</span><span style="color: cyan; text-align: center;"><span style="color: black;"> </span></span><span style="color: #00b0f0; text-align: center;"><a href="http://bit.ly/2Vd0UKH"><span style="color: #00b0f0;">http://bit.ly/2Vd0UKH</span></a></span></p><div style="text-align: center;"><div style="text-align: left;"><div><br /></div><ol><li>The Amorites II The Ill fated first Babylonian Empire 2 <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2023/04/amorite-2-ill-fated-first-babylonian.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>Sumer after the Sumerians, the Amorite rulers Sumerians <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2023/02/after-sumerians-amorites-1.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>Sumerians 5,the lost years <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2021/12/the-incredible-sumerians-part-2-first.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The Sumerians 4 The Brutal Akkadians <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2022/07/sumer-part-4-brutal-akkadians.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The Incredible Sumerians 3 after the flood <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2021/12/the-incredible-sumerians-part-2-first.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The Incredible Sumerians 2 <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2021/12/the-incredible-sumerians-part-2-first.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The Incredible Sumerians 1 <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2021/10/the-incredible-sumerians-part-1.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The fall of the Roman Republic 3 (Late Republic) <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2021/06/the-fall-of-roman-republic-3-descent.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The fall of the Roman Republic 2 (middle Republic) <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2021/05/the-fall-of-roman-republic-2-spoilt-by.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The Fall of the Roman republic 1 (early republic) <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2021/03/the-fall-roman-republic-1the-early.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The last King of Rome and the start of the Republic <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/11/the-last-king-of-rome.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The Kings of Rome, fact or fiction <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/09/the-kings-in-rome-fact-or-fiction.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>Out of Africa 2, Homo Sapiens <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/08/"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>Out of Africa 1, Early evolution of man <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/07/"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The missing Neolithic farmers of old Europe <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/05/the-missing-neolithic-farmers-of-old.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li> The True Dawn of the Neolithic Age <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/04/dawn-of-neolithic-age-revolution-or.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The Plague a snapshot, 3,000 BC till today <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/03/the-plague-snapshot-3000-bc-till-today.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The Great Plague, a brief scientific background <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/02/plague-brief-scientific-background.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>Boudica (Boadicea) heroine of the Britons AD 60 <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/09/boudica-boadicea-ad-60.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>Armenian Genocide, background <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/07/armenian-genocide-background.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>Armenia, a land of ancient history and enduring tragedy <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/07/historical-armenia.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The true Aryans <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/06/a-very-brief-introduction-to-true-aryans.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>Phoenicians, remarkable survivors <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/05/the-remarkable-phoenicians.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The Bronze Age Collapse, the greatest disaster to ever visit the ancient world <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/04/the-bronze-age-collapse.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></li><li>The mysterious Philistines and the Sea People <span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"> <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/03/normal-0-false-false-false-en-au-x-none.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>here</u></span></a></span></span></li><li>The <span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Pelasgoí</span>, the forgotten people of Greece <span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/02/the-pelasgoi-forgotten-people-of-greece.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">Pelasgoi</span></a></span></span> </li><li> The search for Troy <span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/02/the-search-for-troy.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Heinrich Schliemann</span></span></a></span></span></li><li>The history of Paladins from medieval French literature till today..<a href="http://paladinshistory.blogspot.com/" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">History of Paladins,</span></a> </li><li> Best Kindle Epic Fantasy and Sword and Sorcery deals <a href="http://bestepicfantasy.blogspot.com.au/2016/09/best-sword-and-sorcery-and-epic-fantasy.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>click here</u></span></a> </li><li> How to get your free book from Smashwords <a href="http://freebooksfromsmashwords.blogspot.com.au/2016/11/free-books-from-smashwords.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>click here </u></span></a> </li><li> Song of Troy: an Epic Sword and Sorcery tale from Ancient times <a href="http://swordandsorcerytalesfromancienttimes.blogspot.com.au/2016/10/epic-sword-and-sorcery-tales-from.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><u>click here</u></span></a></li><li></li></ol></div></div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-22122763686502580122023-04-13T22:30:00.077-07:002023-05-25T15:46:42.625-07:00Amorites 2 : The Ill fated first Babylonian Empire <p style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: center;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan; font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: center;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></p><h3 style="text-align: center;">The Amorites (2 of 2)<o:p></o:p></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: center;">The Ill Fated first Babylonian Empire<o:p></o:p></h3><p>The Amorites were a rural group originating from the region north of Sumer. </p><p>They were comprised of contentious tribal (and sub-tribal) groups led by ambitious chieftains. </p><p>While they absorbed the Akkadian language and culture, they did not have the deep cultural beliefs in social order or in the veneration of cities and infrastructure that had kept Sumer peaceful and prosperous for so long. </p><p>They saw no problem with fighting amongst themselves, forming unstable alliances across tribes and even, for some, the destructions of the great canals on which life in Sumer depended.</p><p>After the fall of UR III, the Amorite dynasty of Isin was strong enough to keep peace in southern and northern Sumer for a hundred years. </p><p>But, this ended in 1926
or 1923 BC (middle chronology) when Larsa, under Gungunum, rebelled and captured Ur, plunging southern Sumer
into civil war.</p><p>There was not only war in the south, northern Sumer was left open to the sorts of conflicts already occurring across the rest of Amorite Mesopotamia. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The (Amorite
ruled) city of Kazullu (in northern Sumer) was one of the early losers in this period,
finding itself attacked by several neighbours. </p><p class="Myparagraph">It lost land, and ultimately fell, to a man called Sumu-(<i>Amorite for</i> <i>chieftain</i>) Abum. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He established his capital
at Kisurra but more importantly, the land he conquered (1897 BC Middle Chronology) included <b>Babylon</b>. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTUeMbOhVWqYMRJ-_Gpi3yJuH-p1NXJs2LirReVVomTDKK88GN_WCdU_NA2YNiCjH8Mh3NDyfsE-oHZxkweSFMxyZApD63K9hfSH9t72odvmK55mcAfnbhBDUPiJNQhYZcmJpArPD22jD05mWkjjIQ-Mx6zKajU31vyG7qN1IDyMh99lEtLVFFjY2Zyw/s341/Babylonian%20Empire.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="341" data-original-width="286" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTUeMbOhVWqYMRJ-_Gpi3yJuH-p1NXJs2LirReVVomTDKK88GN_WCdU_NA2YNiCjH8Mh3NDyfsE-oHZxkweSFMxyZApD63K9hfSH9t72odvmK55mcAfnbhBDUPiJNQhYZcmJpArPD22jD05mWkjjIQ-Mx6zKajU31vyG7qN1IDyMh99lEtLVFFjY2Zyw/s320/Babylonian%20Empire.JPG" width="268" /></a></div><p class="Myparagraph">Babylon was at the time a small
town, the cult centre for Marduk (at the time a relatively minor deity but destined to
become the head deity of the Mesopotamian religious pantheon, as Babylon gained
in prominence). <span class="hgkelc"><span lang="EN"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Little
is known about the next three ‘Babylonian’ chieftains who were busy defending their territory and expanding it (modestly) at the expense of their
neighbours. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The greatest danger for them was attacks from the south (from Larsa and on one occasion from a briefly resurgent Isin). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Hammurabi’s
father, <i>Sin</i>-Muballit, was more successful. He decisively repelled Larsa then steadily strengthening his kingdom into a
significant (if somewhat modest) local power. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He transferred his capital to
Babylon and was the first of his 'Babylonian' dynasty to take on the Amorite title ‘Sin’
(<i>meaning king</i>).</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">He
retired due to ill health with his son, Hammurabi <i>(Amorite:
ʿAmmu-rāpiʾ </i> meaning my grandfather, <i>or
paternal uncle,</i>
was great, <i>or a healer</i>), ascending to the throne at eighteen ( 1792 BC, MC). </p><p class="Myparagraph">At
that time the geopolitical situation was complex and in a state of flux.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJhTSG7xfbXPAP2RUjkNk-88Gn9-sWb0Ru8-9pNc3mne9KLdDr3KslHO1xym4HUOAjhkn7PswAiji5i1zXMAHeDeXf4L_gFGEYX69_pFAl8kI1R18gC0VGS29qcAsQhosU_VXm_CsZ_g2JEqFBtxWolqfjW7HJMdZ9-g_5-i3qnRd8Pr7yPbubtLKLmg/s800/Amorites.png" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="616" data-original-width="800" height="246" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJhTSG7xfbXPAP2RUjkNk-88Gn9-sWb0Ru8-9pNc3mne9KLdDr3KslHO1xym4HUOAjhkn7PswAiji5i1zXMAHeDeXf4L_gFGEYX69_pFAl8kI1R18gC0VGS29qcAsQhosU_VXm_CsZ_g2JEqFBtxWolqfjW7HJMdZ9-g_5-i3qnRd8Pr7yPbubtLKLmg/s320/Amorites.png" width="320" /></a></div><p></p><p class="Myparagraph">To the south, Larsa and Isin continued to struggle for dominance while several cities maintained
their independence. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">To the East was Eshnunna. Eshnunna up until then was often a client
state (most often of Elam) but a strong and clever local dynasty had more recently taken control. </p><p class="Myparagraph">They had managed to expand their territory and even
forced the Amorite king Šamši-Adad I to flee his home in Ekallatum (in what
would later become the Assyrian region) for Babylon. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Šamši-Adad
I had subsequently returned and had proven triumphant. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He conquered the nearby towns that had been weakened by Eshnunnites (but not held by them). </p><p class="Myparagraph">He then used treachery towards his allies, war and even assassination to put his own son on the throne of Mari and make Eshnunna subservient to him.</p><p class="Myparagraph">This gave him an immense and rich kingdom, (‘The Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia’). </p><p class="Myparagraph">He controlled the important
East-West overland trade routes and even 'inherited' the ancient Assyrian trading colonies in Anatolia.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="Myparagraph">To the
Northwest (of Babylon) was the large and powerful Yamhad Amorite tribe centred on Halab
(modern day Aleppo) and its smaller rival Qatna.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Of the
warring and inter-tribal fractions it was (later) said :<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">"<i>No
king is truly powerful just on his own: ten to fifteen kings follow</i> <i>Hammurabi of
Babylon, as many follow Rim-Sin of Larsa, as many follow Ibal-pi-El of
Eshnunna, and as many follow Amut-pi-El of Qatna (North-west Amorite
territory); but twenty kings follow Yarim-Lim of Yamhad (Aleppo).”</i>
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Hammurabi
is more famous for his <span class="hgkelc"><span lang="EN">Code of laws which
</span></span>he claimed to
have received from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. He had it <span class="hgkelc"><span lang="EN">inscribed on human-sized stone pillars and placed them in
the towns of his realm. </span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc"><span lang="EN">Much could be said about this, but </span>it isn’t the focus here. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph">Only scanty and contradictory
records remain of his military exploits. Many of the dates, sequences and
circumstances are vague. </p><p class="Myparagraph">At
first his ambitions were stymied by the balance of power.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">His first real opportunity came five years later. He had already joined an unsuccessful alliance against Larsa and then (1787 BC) took advantage
of the weakness of Isin to turn against former allies to conquer Uruk and raid Isin. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Unfortunately,
his raid on Isin brought him into direct conflict with Rim-Sin. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Rim-Sin was Larsa's greatest king and in the process of of taking possession of Isin and some of its former allies. Hammurabi was driven back and lost the dynasty’s original capital,
Kisurra, which later became independent.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The events leading to Hammurab's great breakthrough began many years later with the death of Šamši-Adad I (1776 BC, MC) the great king of the KoUM. </p><p class="Myparagraph">After that the chickens came home to roost for the man’s successors. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">One of
his two sons very soon lost Mari (1775 B.C) to its exiled prince Zimri-Lim (with help
from Yamhad). Zimri-Lim remained beholden to Yamhad and called its then king 'father'. As soon as he regained Mari, Zimri-Lim had to fight factions within his own tribe, after which he concentrated on modestly extending his kingdom to the North turning it into a strong and wealthy kingdom.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The
other son of Šamši-Adad I, Ishme-Dagan I, was in charge of the region which would
later become Assyria. He was a highly competent ruler and general but found himself pressed when Eshnunna rebelled 3-4 years later (1771 BC) and began to regain territory it had originally lost to the father.</p><p class="Myparagraph"> Hammurabi had already expanded his kingdom East and a little north which gave him a contested border with Eshnunna, and he joined in support of Ishme-Dagan I whose father once had taken refuge in Babylon. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Over the next 5 or 6 years, Ibal pi’el II of Eshnunna found himself fighting on two fronts.</p><p class="Myparagraph">This lead him to make an alliance with the Gutians and his old allies the Elamites which gave him the command of a truly immense army: 12,000 of his own troops, 10,000
Gutians and a large expeditionary force of Elamites. </p><p class="Myparagraph">More likely though, the Elamites (under the command of their great general Kunnam) had the greatest control over the combined force and Ibal pi’el II found himself increasingly a hostage to his Elamite allies. </p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Elamites began by betraying the Gutian princess, Nawaritum, who really wanted to
attack Larsa. They took her army off her, probably with promises of rich plunder, and headed north. She disappeared form history.</p><p class="Myparagraph">While they had a huge army, they still had a second front against the Babylonians and Ishme-Dagan I (and Hammurabi) proved to be a clever adversaries. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Ishme-Dagan I felt the brunt of their push but he made several local alliances and Assyria had regions that were difficult terrain for chariots and armies of that time to conquer. </p><p class="Myparagraph">In the far north it is mountainous with well watered plains south of this. Going further south there are marshes, before giving way to the more familiar arid regions of
Mesopotamia. </p><p class="Myparagraph">As their ‘Assyrian’
campaign slowed, the Eshnunnites (or more likely Kunnam) next betrayed their ally Mari by raiding their settlements, opening a <b>third</b> front for them. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Yamhad hurried troops to the aide of Mari. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Facing the Elamites and Eshnunnites was a powerful but somewhat unwieldy alliance.</p><p class="Myparagraph">The Babylonians, (<span class="hgkelc"><span lang="EN">Amnanum </span></span>tribesmen) were allied with Ishme-Dagan I ( a more nomadic tribe). </p><p class="Myparagraph">The Amorites from Mari were Banu-Simaal tribesmen with Yamhad tribes-men helping them. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Ishme-Dagan I was now nominally on the same side as Zimri-Lim of Mari and those two definitely didn't get on! </p><p class="Myparagraph">There was likely to be other ethnic groups and factional interests, but Hammurabi still managed to take control of the alliance and mold it too his will. He was senior in age, he was an experienced and capable general and he had a very dominating personality. Besides, he was the only one friendly with all of them and he was the only king in the combined force (until Ishme-Dagan I joined them). </p><p class="Myparagraph">Still it must have been an interesting planning group with so many fractions, especially when Hammurabi invited Ishme-Dagan I to join them in the command tent!</p><p class="Myparagraph">But things were going to became even more complicated. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The Elamites, clearly unhappy with what they and achieved in terms of plunder and territorial gains turned on Eshnunna (which had been independent or semi-independent for some time). </p><p class="Myparagraph">This meant that the diminished Eshnunnites were now battling the Elamites on another front, but they couldn't stop them seizing Eshnunna and killing their king in 1765 BC.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Hammurabi
continued to manage what must have been an unruly alliance by the use of persuasion,
threats and bullying. He even got his old enemy , Rim-Sin of Larsa, to send him
troops to evict the Elamites and incorporated some surviving Eshnunnites into his Grand Army. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He finally evicted the
Elamites from Eshnunna and Mesopotamia in 1764 BC but he
didn’t get all he wanted. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He wanted to take control of Eshnunna himself or put
his own client king on the throne but the army chose a man called Ṣillī-Sîn.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">We don't know a lot about Ṣillī-Sîn. He may have been an Eshnunnite. He was described as a ‘modest section leader in
the army’ which might be a nod to the old Sumerian penchant for understatement.
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">What we
do know is that he was very wary of Hammurabi
and/or whatever alliance he was offered but he eventually accepted it and
married one of Hammurabi’s daughters.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It was
then that Hammurabi showed his true colours. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">On the
flimsiest of pretexts, he took whatever of his ‘grand army’ that would follow
him against Rim-Sin of Larsa, claiming
he hadn’t sent enough troops to help fight the Elamites. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">During
a six month campaign, he formed an alliance with Nippur and Lagash to help capture Isin
and Uruk but then turned on his two new allies and captured their cities. </p><p class="Myparagraph">This became a pattern for Hammurabi. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Driven by power and greed
he would make alliances and then break them as soon as they no
longer suited him.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">He
conquered Larsa in 1763 BC after a siege of several months, capturing and murdering Rim-Sin, which left no one and no force in the south that
could oppose him.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In 1762
BC he returned to the north to attack his new ally Ṣillī-Sîn, capturing Eshnunna
in 1761 BC after an epic battle that involved 12,000 men on each side (presumably killing the new king). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In
Autumn of the same year, he moved to attack and murder his long term ally
Zimrî-Lîm of Mari. It is possible that Zimrî-Lîm had joined Ṣillī-Sîn in defending Eshnunna but his duplicity was amazing.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph">This
left him free to attack Ishme-Dagan I but this time he faced a skilled and
determined opponent resulting in a prolonged campaign. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Ishme-Dagan I was eventually forced to surrender with an
unknown fraction of his kingdom remaining to him and pay tribute to Babylon. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCur5h8JR3qWVKqCHlhMBWHiObiP5PkUYhCOXE4RmG2h5VV2EH1rLo2tA0O87o1_jfOmJ1cwmWZzO3hzzW4EWuriEcgapHt5hpcVdKP2K3JI1ngjaSPegl0s4wmgzd1x_1jHsAI-rvcRm3SdpWW36_NvpWM5ox0G0vKm8ZoEt9TwRdlR92siRMvUmdtw/s359/Old%20Babylonian%20Empire.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="359" data-original-width="342" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiCur5h8JR3qWVKqCHlhMBWHiObiP5PkUYhCOXE4RmG2h5VV2EH1rLo2tA0O87o1_jfOmJ1cwmWZzO3hzzW4EWuriEcgapHt5hpcVdKP2K3JI1ngjaSPegl0s4wmgzd1x_1jHsAI-rvcRm3SdpWW36_NvpWM5ox0G0vKm8ZoEt9TwRdlR92siRMvUmdtw/s320/Old%20Babylonian%20Empire.JPG" width="305" /></a></div><p class="Myparagraph">During this time Mari revolted (1759 BC).</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Mari
had been a wealthy trading kingdom and its palace was the envy of the region.
This time Hammurabi returned to completely destroy the city so it
could never rise again. </p><p class="Myparagraph">In just a few years, (1755 BC) , Hammurabi was the undisputed master of Mesopotamia<span class="nowrap">. O</span>nly Yamhad and Qatna maintained their independence.<br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"> </span><b><span style="font-size: medium;">The </span></b><b><span style="font-size: medium;">Babylonians, d</span></b><b><span style="font-size: medium;">isastrous Emperors</span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: medium;">They could conquer but they couldn't rule, all they did in the end was destroy. </span></div><p></p><h3 style="text-align: center;"><o:p></o:p></h3>
<h3 style="margin-left: 54pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span class="MyparagraphChar">1.<span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span><!--[endif]-->They didn't get the people to love them.<span class="MyparagraphChar"><span style="font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></h3>
<p class="Myparagraph">It
should have been a glorious triumph. Hammurabi should have had control of an incredibly powerful and rich Empire </p><p class="Myparagraph">Later Babylonians deified him, seeing him as a God and a great king. After all, he had made Babylon and its God Marduk great throughout Mesopotamia (and who doesn't like a triumphant conqueror?) </p><p class="Myparagraph">But the people <b>he conquered</b> saw him <b>very</b> differently. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He was treacherous, a liar, a bully and a despot.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">His ‘clever’
administrative reforms were built upon what many others such as Rim Sin of Larsa had done and his code of laws was built on existing Sumerian laws.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">More importantly, he did not manage to make his newly conquered people love him, or his successor. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">As had
been demonstrated several times before, Sumer would only unite behind a Lugal they admired and respected. Try to force them and they would only revolt. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">By the
time Hammurabi was finished conquering his empire, he had spent the last fourteen years of his reign almost continually fighting wars. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He
was old and sick. Samsu-Iluna, had already
taken over many of the responsibilities of the throne and assumed full reign in 1749
BCE.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There
was no problem with Samsu-iluna’s military abilities but when trouble broke
out, there were just too many fires to put out. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Around
1741 BC Rim-sin II , a nephew of Rim-sin of Larsa, rebelled. A total of twenty
six cities including the once powerful <span class="nowrap">Eshnunna joined him. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="nowrap">It took several years to put down this revolt but it was only a few years later
when another pan-Sumerian revolt broke out, this time more successful. It established the somewhat enigmatic Sealand Dynasty in the far south of Sumer which was destined to outlast Amorite
Babylon. </span><span class="nowrap"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="nowrap">And while </span>Samsu-iluna’
<span class="nowrap">was distracted by the first revolt, Assyria descended into
chaos and civil war which removed the Amorite rulers (clients of Babylon) in
favour of a new Akkadian (local) dynasty</span>.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="MsoListParagraph" style="margin-left: 54pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 107%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span style="font-feature-settings: normal; font-kerning: auto; font-optical-sizing: auto; font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-alternates: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-variation-settings: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></b><b><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">Killing all the Geese that would have laid Golden Eggs for them<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Mesopotamia was a very rich region. The first Babylonian Empire <i>should</i> have been very rich and powerful, but
it destroyed much of what it conquered. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The
records in the cities of Ur, Uruk, Larsa, Nippur and Isin progressively ceased
during Samsu-iluna's reign and archaeological records show these cities became
largely or completely abandoned for hundreds of years, until well into the
Kassite period. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Great cities like Larsa and Mari never recovered. The trading city of <span class="MyparagraphChar">Eshnunna was devastated and, while it would eventually recover, it was never great again.</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Some archeologists have speculated that this was due to Amorite mismanagement, that the native Sumerians deserted the Amorites for the native
Sealand Dynasty in the south. Whatever the truth of this part, the main reason was just how destructive Amorite rule was for its occupied lands.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The
Babylonian’s favourite form of warfare was to construct fortified dams across a
city’s water and irrigation canals either depriving it of water or releasing
the water all at once to cause a flood. </p><p class="Myparagraph">This was highly effective, but
incredibly destructive in Sumer which only survived through its canals. The Babylonians never
returned themselves to repair the damage, leaving any surviving locals to do that. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">And, once
they had conquered the city they would loot it and tear down its defensive
walls. This left their conquered territory defenceless in the face of Elamite,
Kassite and Amorite armies and slaver raids that followed.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="MyparagraphChar">In the end of his reign Samsu-iluna
was only left with a kingdom that was only fractionally larger than the one his
father had started out with 50 years before. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="MyparagraphChar">He did have control of the Euphrates </span><span class="MyparagraphChar">up to and including the ruins of Mari and its
dependencies and whatever was left of a much diminished Eshnunna which also suffered
a </span>catastrophic
flood in 1755 BC<span class="MyparagraphChar">.</span><span class="MyparagraphChar"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<h3 style="text-align: center;">The Fall of Babylon<o:p></o:p></h3>
<p class="Myparagraph">After
fifty years, the (first) Babylonian Empire continued only in name. Future kings
became defensive and inward-looking. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Mesopotamia
had a (mostly) peaceful influx of skilled farmers. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Sumer had the Kassites (thought
to come) from the Zagros region. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Assyria, Yamhad and Anatolia had Hurrians coming
from the Caucasus. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Yamhad
filled some of the void caused by the destruction of Mari and eventually
absorbed their rival Qatna but the last great Amorite kingdom was to become threatened by the rise of the Hittites who had begun uniting Anatolia under a
single dynasty. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZJ9Ka3x8lmHh7bKH-3WVWY-wpYyFIkNw16DyBz2x2QJXG3W0KqInbM4cIDdC3rlNTa_pq-mYKJTZ7FeA0lFGg195H_PvgtaKHGDb5RIRt1zrBUJwQErxEbq1khWLCr2_65PPTMOxJEV0fmkRGof3CUalsD-oxhae056kYnNiBSSU2X6f0l4NQqyw4Ww/s285/Hittite%20chariot.JPG" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="229" data-original-width="285" height="161" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiZJ9Ka3x8lmHh7bKH-3WVWY-wpYyFIkNw16DyBz2x2QJXG3W0KqInbM4cIDdC3rlNTa_pq-mYKJTZ7FeA0lFGg195H_PvgtaKHGDb5RIRt1zrBUJwQErxEbq1khWLCr2_65PPTMOxJEV0fmkRGof3CUalsD-oxhae056kYnNiBSSU2X6f0l4NQqyw4Ww/w200-h161/Hittite%20chariot.JPG" width="200" /></a></div><br />Hattusili I (1650–1620
BC) campaigned extensively against Yamhad and its allies. <p></p><p class="Myparagraph">He bequeathed his empire to his grandson <b>Mursili I<i> </i></b>who finally conquered a much weakened Halap (Aleppo) and then took his troops on an epic march all the way south to sack Babylon (1595 BC).</p><p class="Myparagraph"><br /></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilHbZ5mhZvF7GTwiVPAKIGET18DvuSiwDWs80pV51kNSDkiM5WHJIA63S4bZDisDE39RGeFD1BA0l3EuACp3XPvT7Nhx4fML6vif7AIilgoD4hLYQMJtL0woheqJVmfeKUAG2CcFSR342WxDLry-8C8vajzdZQq3UgsU8YdQd0ljWd4CcFzmF8maa1Hg/s392/Kassite%20Empire.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="392" data-original-width="336" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilHbZ5mhZvF7GTwiVPAKIGET18DvuSiwDWs80pV51kNSDkiM5WHJIA63S4bZDisDE39RGeFD1BA0l3EuACp3XPvT7Nhx4fML6vif7AIilgoD4hLYQMJtL0woheqJVmfeKUAG2CcFSR342WxDLry-8C8vajzdZQq3UgsU8YdQd0ljWd4CcFzmF8maa1Hg/s320/Kassite%20Empire.JPG" width="274" /></a></div> This left the site in ruins and not long after the industrious Kassite immigrants took over.<div><br /></div><div>The Kassites went on to rehabilitate many Sumerians cities that had been depopulated by the Amorite Babylonians, eventually conquering the (Sumerian) Sealand dynasty in southern Sumer. <p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="line-height: 17.12px; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Though more modest in size relative to the other Babylonian Empires, it was easily the longest lasting, lasting through till 1155 BC., almost six hundred years.</span></p><div><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="line-height: 17.12px; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><o:p style="font-family: inherit;"> </o:p><span style="font-family: inherit;">I hope you have enjoyed this blog (2 of 2) of the Amorites </span></div><div><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><p class="Myparagraph" style="font-size: medium; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit; text-align: left;">I also write Epic Fantasy set in ancient times and exotic locations</span></p><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; overflow: visible; padding: 0px;"><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;">Please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">My first book : 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></span></p><div><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /></span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></span></div></div></h1></span></div></div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-33709187075417469862023-02-15T19:22:00.117-08:002024-01-06T13:35:28.946-08:00Sumer after the Sumerians, the Amorites Rulers 1<p style="text-align: center;"> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: center;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: center;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan; font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-align: center;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></p><h3 style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Sumer after the last Sumerian Dynasty</span></h3><h3 style="text-align: center;"><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The
Amorites 1 (of 2)</span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQfpvuHB0jlOQcI0S6pmJOLQAgZZL0S5StPFJHRANMZBdTuSSTDnv0imVgS6PwOTCMlJYWJkQJF8b7BGZGg8YT-cT16ImWHF2PihWL9yDseJB8SsEiTD3K6z89SEpYSlJLR7HF6hb8ERZCO4doKTf5bf7jy7oa6qa09sxMrChu--rRyAa4ut9UoKwXPQ/s299/Amorites.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="299" data-original-width="287" height="299" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQfpvuHB0jlOQcI0S6pmJOLQAgZZL0S5StPFJHRANMZBdTuSSTDnv0imVgS6PwOTCMlJYWJkQJF8b7BGZGg8YT-cT16ImWHF2PihWL9yDseJB8SsEiTD3K6z89SEpYSlJLR7HF6hb8ERZCO4doKTf5bf7jy7oa6qa09sxMrChu--rRyAa4ut9UoKwXPQ/s1600/Amorites.JPG" width="287" /></a></div><br /></h3>
<p class="MsoNormal"><b>Introduction</b></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The land of Sumer hosted the world’s most dominant and sophisticated culture for an incredible four and a half millennia. It was one of the most productive and densely populated region of its time and gave rise to the world’s first true cities. For most of its early history, it was a food basket: exporting a massive agricultural surplus to many other regions and receiving much needed resources in return</span></p><p class="MsoNormal">In roughly 2200 BC, there was a mega drought affecting the most civilised parts of the ancient world (and beyond) and lasting a hundred years. The end of it very roughly corresponds to the start of Mesopotamia’s somewhat ill defined middle Bronze Age<span style="font-family: inherit;">.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit;">The result was catastrophic, with little rainfall to many places like the north of Mesopotamia which relied on rainfed agriculture and poor river flows in the great rivers (like Tigris-Euphrates and the Nile) resulting in failure of the annual flood and salinisation</span></p><p class="Myparagraph">Focusing on Mesopotamia: many cities, especially in the north became abandoned and there was a series of various ‘nomadic’ and other incursions affecting the Akkadian Empire and then the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112- 2004 BC).</p><p class="Myparagraph">The Amorites were the main group during Ur III period and were mentioned in the last blog. They were herdsmen thought to have come from the mountainous regions of central and western Syria. </p><p class="Myparagraph">In happier times they would have practiced transhumance: spending the harsh dry summers in alpine meadows and moving down to the wadis (oases) that drained the mountains during the cold (relatively wet) winters that could see snow. </p><p class="Myparagraph">It would be in these wadis (valleys) that they would have their villages.</p><p class="Myparagraph">The great drought forced them to spread widely over the fertile crescent. They reached Canaan where they are mentioned in the Bible and even contributed to the <span style="font-size: 11pt;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">‘Hyksos’,
the foreign rulers that came from Canaan into northern Egypt at that time.</span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph">Returning the focus to Sumer, they also followed the great river (valley)s south, raiding, taking their herds, conquering and settling, despite everything the third Dynasty tried to do to stop them.</p><p class="Myparagraph"> Throughout history, many more people lived in rural than urban areas so, when they began to move in a whole-sale way during a mega-drought and a period of urban weakness, their numbers were unstoppable</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXdcxPeUh00zNIuIcqdDXj4yMvontRC1SSiO--8H_XQWh1AqhdfxJYYgFJA9Xz5eQoDQZvwlOZ-sB_VSEO-Dq4yDTHMQzLqrFOal49gfkJmL6QiidhRH7h-mgYMxtfHap9lwyPYLvwfla87n_qoxf-6nTq78QswtgcXW0-WZQkD4PHjYqTNMcT6aXoPQ/s558/4.2%20kilo%20event.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="371" data-original-width="558" height="266" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXdcxPeUh00zNIuIcqdDXj4yMvontRC1SSiO--8H_XQWh1AqhdfxJYYgFJA9Xz5eQoDQZvwlOZ-sB_VSEO-Dq4yDTHMQzLqrFOal49gfkJmL6QiidhRH7h-mgYMxtfHap9lwyPYLvwfla87n_qoxf-6nTq78QswtgcXW0-WZQkD4PHjYqTNMcT6aXoPQ/w400-h266/4.2%20kilo%20event.JPG" width="400" /></a></div>After the rains returned, it would take another couple of centuries for Mesopotamia to be properly repopulated.<p></p><p class="Myparagraph">This mega-drought was not the only brutal one interrupting the "Wet Holocene' (called 'the African Humid Period' in Africa ) 14,500- 4,000 BC .</p><p class="Myparagraph"> Unfortunately for Sumer this one was on the background of a more insidious climate change. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The wet Holocene which had sustained Sumer and many other places was ending. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Over time, more and more of Sumer’s southern cities became abandoned and the once fertile fields returned to desert. The centre of power in Mesopotamia shifted slowly but permanently to the north. </p><p class="Myparagraph">In Sumer this led to the rise of Babylon, but Southern Sumer wasn't finished yet.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p><h3 style="text-align: center;">The Isin/ Larsa Period<o:p></o:p></h3><h3><span style="font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;">Note: <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All dates are approximate, to convert from ‘Middle’ to ‘Short’ <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>chronology’ subtract 64 yr</span></span></h3><h3><br /></h3><h3>The Dynasty of Isin (2017—1771 BC.)</h3><p class="Myparagraph">The Dynasty of Isin rose from the ashes of Ur III . While it claimed to be the successor to the third dynasty of Ur, it is ironic that it was established under the Amorites, by an Amorite called Ishbi-Erra (2017 -1986 BC)</p><p class="Myparagraph">There had already been a significant influx of Amorites into Sumer, some taking over cities and towns, others employed by those that had remained in Sumerian hands.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="Myparagraph">They enthusiastically absorbed Sumerian culture and religion and (the Akkadian) language including its written cuneiform form. Akkadian became the Linga Franca throughout much of the middle East for over a millennium.</p><p class="Myparagraph">Ishbi-Erra came from Mari, which had been an important trading city in the north in Akkadian times. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Despite oft repeated assertions, Ishbi-Erra was an Amorite and was not likely to be related to the Akkadian ‘Shakkanakkus’ (hereditary governors ) of Mari who were able to hang on till about 1761 BC..</p><p class="Myparagraph">He was a talented adventurer who, whatever his position amongst the Amorites or even in Mari , had <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>gained a senior position in the Sumerian army (or administration). </p><p class="Myparagraph">As discussed in the last blog, he stopped taking orders the <i>Šarrum</i> (the Akkadian term for Lugal) of Ur and ,as Ur’s power continued to wane, he progressively usurped power both in Isin and nearby cities.</p><p class="Myparagraph">He won a decisive battle against the (other) Amorites and ,after the fall of Ur, he defeated the Elamites more than once, finally ousting them from Ur, Uruk and the main spiritual centre of Nippur. He then went on to eject the Subartu from some of the northern cities like Eshnunna.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgX0hxx53JKDxFMGhwNf_irkUtmBHwaJnrGMkjXFyaGLvewJmkRx-4P2LxD_A2KXpLZtXLpOriLzJ5o568awBzDIC3_OeGZEkMKEo9Mp9imW1zjQLvRw9MbsGwZ7jCb4TNF8MgPZ2l8SPyKBlvhB9f0VPEERuEAr4ph239Oy2eFaJaK_E0Vfbhb4K-Kyg/s420/Subartu.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="358" data-original-width="420" height="273" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgX0hxx53JKDxFMGhwNf_irkUtmBHwaJnrGMkjXFyaGLvewJmkRx-4P2LxD_A2KXpLZtXLpOriLzJ5o568awBzDIC3_OeGZEkMKEo9Mp9imW1zjQLvRw9MbsGwZ7jCb4TNF8MgPZ2l8SPyKBlvhB9f0VPEERuEAr4ph239Oy2eFaJaK_E0Vfbhb4K-Kyg/s320/Subartu.JPG" width="320" /></a></div><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit;">This allowed him to adopt the regal trappings of the former </span><i>Šarrum</i> (Akkadian word for Lugal) including commissioning praise poetry and hymns to himself and other deities and proclaiming himself <span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-style: normal; mso-color-alt: windowtext;"> </span>Dingir-kalam-ma-na" (a God in his own country). </p><p class="Myparagraph">Without doubt, much of this was personal hubris but hegemony over the Sumerians (wooing neutral cities) was not achieved by conquest. It was a function of the prestige other Sumerians and their leaders viewed a particular Lugal </p><p class="Myparagraph">Defending Sumer from the Amorites and Elamites, liberating Ur, claiming to be the custodian of Sumerian culture was more than enough, but it was also expected for him to ‘blow his own horn’ so to speak (which he did)<span style="font-family: inherit;">.</span> </p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Isin and Sumer flourished under his dynasty for over 100 years,. Less is said about their military adventures suggesting it was a surprisingly peaceful time considering what had come before it. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The climate (for a time) was better , not only for the Sumerians and Akkadians but also for the Amorites who were particularly concentrated in the north. The rulers of Isin used dynastic marriages and treaties to maintain peace.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEit8MIvJayZp75fy1GbVsuqO8Ex07aos7kJnzGBeKMJUOmhG-tc9KimW3rELgOmsn0267H4Hm-y2_l__V6IiDxlPEfUXuwOHpJWK0JW9PLFznr56MAwY1yOHmglIQN1DNDJkdWIG9--BjbKgN7k6otfH4qY7Zr_Q3SmYaPkXKI6E6GzlausE6ez2gKbew/s294/Code.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="294" data-original-width="288" height="294" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEit8MIvJayZp75fy1GbVsuqO8Ex07aos7kJnzGBeKMJUOmhG-tc9KimW3rELgOmsn0267H4Hm-y2_l__V6IiDxlPEfUXuwOHpJWK0JW9PLFznr56MAwY1yOHmglIQN1DNDJkdWIG9--BjbKgN7k6otfH4qY7Zr_Q3SmYaPkXKI6E6GzlausE6ez2gKbew/s1600/Code.JPG" width="288" /></a></div><p></p><p class="Myparagraph">The Dynasty of Isin was able to rebuild Sumer's temples and cities that had fallen into disrepair and repair its canals. The control of the sea port of Ur gave them not only prestige but prosperity from the sea trade via the Persian Gulf.</p><p class="Myparagraph">Lipit-Ištar the last king of Ishbi-Erra’s dynasty is known for Sumerian language hymns and a code of laws written in Sumerian a hundred years before and influencing the famous (Babylonian) Code of Hammurabi. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Unfortunately, for him and for Isin, it was during his reign that Isin suffered a serious reversal that spelt the end of its hegemony.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="color: black; mso-color-alt: windowtext;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="text-align: left;">Larsa</b></div><p></p><h3><o:p></o:p></h3>
<h3>Larsa</h3><p class="Myparagraph">The once great city of Larsa had long lapsed into obscurity during the Akkadian period. It was initially under the direct control of Ur and then Isin. (Under Isin its governors were Amorites and more recently they had become hereditary). </p><p class="Myparagraph"> In 1932 BC Gungunum (whose Amorite name is derived from the word for "defence"), inherited the post of governor from his brother and father. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He wasn’t interested in peace like the rulers of Isin.</p><p class="Myparagraph">In the first five years of his reign (likely acting independently) he conducted a number of successful campaigns against Elam which had been at peace with Isin. </p><p class="Myparagraph">This netted him an enviable reputation, a secure eastern flank and considerable wealth. The promise of plunder would have had men flocking to his banner. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He then spent some time consolidating his position before marching on the important city of Ur and capturing it (from Isin). </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi39Qwji1Lh8j3wfGVpvfyrSWT8fw8_N5JK0jsqgDURGRlv6glrK7JGlh4RdZU-uh-0waG8zYvAHHsW3MKwMbwQ1_P0ZtpI7uDPAchKwXM77W7jo6EaoN3k5O2AemHkSpFq2w4ow02p3mgUZKNs_fCEDIcSg3ZSQAEcdlndDC-PnDLADpNzAV2GcOdGeQ/s324/Larsa.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="311" data-original-width="324" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi39Qwji1Lh8j3wfGVpvfyrSWT8fw8_N5JK0jsqgDURGRlv6glrK7JGlh4RdZU-uh-0waG8zYvAHHsW3MKwMbwQ1_P0ZtpI7uDPAchKwXM77W7jo6EaoN3k5O2AemHkSpFq2w4ow02p3mgUZKNs_fCEDIcSg3ZSQAEcdlndDC-PnDLADpNzAV2GcOdGeQ/s320/Larsa.JPG" width="320" /></a></div><p></p><p class="Myparagraph">Lipit-Ištar was caught flat footed by Gungunum’s attacks and forced into a rear guard action. We don’t know his fate, but subsequent rulers of Isin were locals, with Akkadian names. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Larsa now became <i>the</i> dominant force in Southern Sumer and continued to attack Isin by building fortified dams to block its access to its canals, a technique abhorred by Sumerians. </p><p class="Myparagraph">In some ways <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gungunum<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>only did to Isin what Ishbi-Erra had done to the last <i>Šarrum</i> of Ur but he had done it by force. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Instead of unifying Sumer, he fragmented it and began a civil war.</p><p class="Myparagraph"> He and subsequent rulers of Larsa tried to claim hegemony (loyalty from non aligned rulers) but, as mentioned, hegemony in Sumer was not gained by force which would only foster rebellion and resentment.</p><p class="Myparagraph">At its height the city only had 10-15 cities allied with it and it was Isin, not Larsa that was the last dynasty recorded in the important Sumerian kings list. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Many less powerful kingdoms in Sumer (such as Uruk) and further north<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> more </span>powerful entities such as Eshnunna, Mari and Assur (Assyrians) asserted their independence.</p><p class="Myparagraph">It was a time of chaos and shifting alliances. It also allowed the Amorites to conquer more cities in the north of Sumer and the Elamites to resume raiding and demanding tribute in the South.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph"> Despite an alliance between Isin, Uruk and Babylon against him, Rim-Sin of Larsa campaigned steadily deeper
into Isin’s territory beginning in 1807 BC. Babylon pillaged the greatly weakened city (and its recent ally) in 1806 BC and Larsa captured it in 1792 BC. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The kingdom of Larsa now led the strongest coalition in southern Sumer but unbeknownst to it, time (for it) was running out. .</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">More on this in the next blog on the first Babylonian Empire, but three decades
later Hammurabi of Babylon attacked it (1764 BC) and , after a six month siege,
incorporated it into his realm.</p><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><o:p> </o:p>I hope you have enjoyed this blog (1 of 2) on 'Sumer after the last Sumerian dynasty'</span><span style="font-family: arial;"> </span></p><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; overflow: visible; padding: 0px;"><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">I also write Epic Fantasy set in ancient times and exotic locations</span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;">Please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">My first book : 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></span></p><div><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /></span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></span></div></div></h1><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-368322302033102082022-09-16T21:53:00.022-07:002023-02-17T14:35:15.336-08:00Sumer 5: The lost years and Sumer's last Empire<p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-weight: 400; text-indent: 0px;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-weight: 400; text-indent: 0px;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan; font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-weight: 400; text-indent: 0px;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Sumer 5</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">The lost years of the Gutian Dynasty</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">A time of suffering</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">To the Mesopotamians, the Gutians were a scourge, God's punishment visited upon the</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2vjSST9mZUNN-1lEhZLjWl5gP6tKlv95ZLDQg0lVkRHIU5C8v3GFRDjUcaxwZ7sgp4bmSWn0VCTg8mwUNgMT4-ijSNTpkfuXoGEMkte2x8aKrKLlh98vJ4xX6Ugg9OgtQAGU2EI9Ob9e2ErLUAYp0Gwev3NkBRFlYyT_TmM3Lcfbp8nI4m4gqB-IS7A/s346/Location%20of%20Gutians.JPG" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="284" data-original-width="346" height="262" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2vjSST9mZUNN-1lEhZLjWl5gP6tKlv95ZLDQg0lVkRHIU5C8v3GFRDjUcaxwZ7sgp4bmSWn0VCTg8mwUNgMT4-ijSNTpkfuXoGEMkte2x8aKrKLlh98vJ4xX6Ugg9OgtQAGU2EI9Ob9e2ErLUAYp0Gwev3NkBRFlYyT_TmM3Lcfbp8nI4m4gqB-IS7A/w320-h262/Location%20of%20Gutians.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /> Akkadians. </span><p></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-style: italic;">"Nothing escaped their clutches, no one avoided their grasp. Messengers no longer traveled the highways, the courier's boat no longer passed along the rivers. Prisoners manned the watch. Brigands occupied the highways. The doors of the city gates of the Land lay dislodged in mud and all the foreign lands uttered bitter cries from the walls of their cities.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">They were described as an unhappy<span face="Helvetica-Oblique" style="font-style: italic;"> </span>people<span face="Helvetica-Oblique" style="font-style: italic;"> ‘who acted violently against the gods, people who the kingship of Sumer to the mountains took away, who Sumer with wickedness filled, who from one with a wife, his wife took away from him, who from one with a child, his child took away from him, who wickedness and violence produced within the country’.</span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-style: italic;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Their raiding was said to interfere with agriculture, trade and the maintenance of the canals, worsening the effects of the crippling drought. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">This might have been true at first, but as soon as they began to rule Sumer rather than just pillage it, they would have needed to re-establish order and follow advice from their Sumerian subjects. Besides, they had their own likely smaller settlements in their own country, which we don't know much about. It is obvious that they were not as 'uncivlised' as they were painted. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span>The earliest evidence of Gutian rule in Sumer came from a tablet of (</span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">Lugal) Annatum, a client king ruling Umma who had </span><span>allegiance to </span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">Ba (lord)-Siûm, the second last Gutian ruler. </span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">Annatum, at least, seemed very happy with the situation. </span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: left; text-indent: 14.4px;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"><b>Dates and time periods</b></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: left; text-indent: 14.4px;"> </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"><span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">The period after the collapse of the Akkadian Empire has been described as a dark Age. The Gutian language had no written form. The evidence we do have is scanty and contradictory. </span></span></span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">Adding to this is the inherent difficulty of dating ancient events.</span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerian year was 360 days with extra months added every four years to bring it in synch with solar events. Sumerian years were named according to some big event in the life of their ruler, such as ‘the Year Sargon conquered Uruk’. Years may have varied between cities. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The best attempts to reconcile ancient years depends on the cycles of Venus recorded in ancient Babylon, but this results in different chronologies varying by up to 64 years. Then these dates have to be extrapolated many centuries backwards which is a meticulous task in the face of scanty, sometimes confusing, evidence. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Having ‘short’ and ‘middle chronologies’ can make sorting out any confusion difficult for the average reader. Many writers (myself included) don't always explain which system he or she is using. The middle is more conventional.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Puzur-Inshushinak</b></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><b style="text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></b></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">One of several examples of this confusion <span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">is the life of Puzur-Inshushinak , the great King of Susa whose life spanned the Gutian period. He was named 'calling the God </span></span><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">Inshushinak', He is thought </span><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"> was said </span><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">to begin as a client king of Shar-Kali-Sharri, the last Akkadian emperor.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">He conducted a three year successful campaign in the Zagreb region in 2110 BC on behalf of the Akkadians before declaring his independence in 2090 BC. He then began to conquer the rest of Elam at the expense of the Akkadians as their empire weakened. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The first problem we have with this is that <span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">Shar-Kali-Sharri's reign is thought to have ended about a hundred years before these dates. </span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Also from Elamite and Neo-Sumerian records, Puzur-Inshushinak (if it was still him) is thought to have lived through till the time of Ur-Namma, the second Neo Sumerian Emperor. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">His living over what we believe was such a long period cannot be resolved with our current view of dates. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Gutian control</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">The G</span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"><span>utians took over Adab and made it their capital most </span></span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">likely sometime towards the end of </span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"><span>Shar-kali-sharri's (the fourth Akkadian Emperor's) reign (when things began to fall apart). </span></span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">This means that there was a period with Gutian rule overlapping with the last of the Akkadian Emperors (?) 29 years. </span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">After this, Uruk was strong enough to take Akkad and hold it for (?) 30 years. </span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"><span>Other cities maintained their independence during this period. La</span></span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"><span>gash is one example of a city which gained independence when Shar-Kali-Sharri's Empire began to implode and it remained largely independent </span></span></span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">throughout the whole Gutian period until it was defeated by the emerging Neo-Sumerians, </span></span><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;">marking the end of its dynasty</span><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"><span>During Gutian times, it entered into a golden age under its able énsi, Gudea.</span></span></span><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"> Interestingly, Gudea sent forth military campaigns into Elam. As he didn't campaign against the Gutians this suggested he had to some sort of accommodation with them, suggesting they were not as bad as claimed.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">The time periods and sequence of events is most unclear but likely 60 years after establishing their base at Adab, the Gutians made a major push: overwhelming Akkad, southern Sumer and Elam.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"> </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">Just after this, in a deposition at the holy city of Nippur, one of their kings (Erridupizir) described himself as ‘the King of four quarters’ and says he was engaged in putting down rebellions in Simurrum the southern most Hurrian city and its Lullubi allies. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Some of the areas in the north of Mesopotamia were depopulated due to the catastrophic drought so this suggest he controlled a large empire. It was a phenomenal achievement for a race dismissed by Mesopotamians as having the 'intelligence of dogs', 'the appearance of monkeys' and a language which was a 'confused babble'.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> The Gutians were said to have 'destroyed' Akkad perhaps around around 2083 BC. but Akkad had several client kings after this and the Gutians set up their main northern base somewhere in or near there. Presumably the old Akkadian capital wasn't completely destroyed.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">From their two bases, they could send raiding parties by land or river canal and they weren’t above blocking water distribution or supplies to cities that opposed them. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"> </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Local Sumerian dynasties continued. Some we know were client kings like Lugal-annatum of Umma and some had considerable independence like the rulers of Lagash. Many of those would pay tribute. It was the long standing system in Sumer under their lugals, as long as it wasn't as onerous as it had been in Akkadian times.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Competition from Susa</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Gutians, even at their height, were not unopposed. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is said that Puzur-Inshushinak of Susa (assuming it was him) extended his territory at the expense of the dying Akkadian Empire to conquer all of Elam. He, like everyone else , was overwhelmed by the Gutians (during their major push) but towards the end of the Gutian period he began to take much of northern Sumer from Gutians including Eshnunna and Akkad and probably Akshak. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">According to the inscriptions of Ur-Namma, Puzur-Inshushinak then went on to numerous cities in central Mesopotamia. This left the Gutians holding Adab and a few surrounding towns, possibly isolated from their Gutian homeland by Elamite forces and maybe being pressed by them from the East.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">It allowed Utu-hengal an easy victory over the Gutians who then agreed to leave Sumer.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">The</span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Neo </span>(new)<span style="font-weight: bold;"> Sumerian Empire</span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">(2112- 2004 BC) <span style="font-weight: bold;">and the Sumerian renaissance</span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">For the next eighty years there was a renaissance of Sumerian culture and power. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumerian was still the language of religion, art and science and Akkadian remained the ‘Linga Franca’. Later kings took Akkadian names.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Utu-hengal of Uruk, and the start of the Neo-Sumerian Empire </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Utu-Hengal of Uruk is thought to have been a client king of the Gutians who rebelled as the Gutians weakened. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">His son in law, Ur-Nammu, the ensi of Ur, helped him conquer the rival city of Lagash which had grown in power and influence, marking the end of the Lagash dynasty. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> Utu-Hengal then marched on Tirigan, the newly elected last Gutian ruler of Sumer. <span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">Tirigan </span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">sent out envoys to sue for peace, but Ute- Hengal captured and bound them. </span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">As described in his victory stele, after much stopping to pray, he went on to have what</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjS2oHoR_RNyESaibzIRiIjZ3t_UtJW3M3zMmYkHrlF0_YW6VKcECqaa2RDRoI9R8uOVW-Mlvn9IS675qe85PMFXPMvSmXs59D42xTmr1MpPfncqn877mMId_EjJZTMSew6IVd3SZN6g6MiixoyvZFHSdE4nlPOp_d4M9eDV2glpt448SdcRtmdkZzwvw/s260/Utu-Hengal.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="206" data-original-width="260" height="206" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjS2oHoR_RNyESaibzIRiIjZ3t_UtJW3M3zMmYkHrlF0_YW6VKcECqaa2RDRoI9R8uOVW-Mlvn9IS675qe85PMFXPMvSmXs59D42xTmr1MpPfncqn877mMId_EjJZTMSew6IVd3SZN6g6MiixoyvZFHSdE4nlPOp_d4M9eDV2glpt448SdcRtmdkZzwvw/s1600/Utu-Hengal.JPG" width="260" /></a></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">seemed an easy victory (using some sort of trap) around 2050 BC.</span><div><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">Tigran fled to a nearby settlement where he and his family were well treated until </span><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">Utu-Hengal</span><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"> demanded their surrender. </span><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">Tirigan agreed to leave Sumer with his people in exchange for his freedom, showing just how weakened the once feared Gutians had become.</span><p></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Utu-Hengal was then able to unite the rest of southern Sumer under his leadership, initiating the Neo-Sumerian Empire.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> The cumulative damage to Akkad from these multiple conquests was so severe that no one has been able to identify its ruins. Perhaps it was a fitting end to the brutal Akkadian period of history.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">After uniting a large part of southern Sumer and evicting the Gutians, Utu-hengal<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>began the process of rehabilitating Sumerians power, culture and infrastructure. In fact he died seven years later in an accident while inspecting a dam (or maybe he drowned while fishing).</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Utu-hengal’s military achievements were exaggerated.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Utu-hengal was revered by later generations of Mesopotamians who saw him as beginning the Neo-Sumerian Empire, a major Sumerian renaissance and the expulsion of the hated Gutians. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">While considerable poetic licence is expected on victory stelae over the Gutians Utu-hengal described himself as the ‘King of the four quarters of the world’ which he most definitely was not. He didn’t even have control of the Uri region which was held by the Elamites and his victory over the already defeated Gutians in Sumer was not as heroic as it may have been portrayed. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Admittedly, like many Neo-Sumerian Emperors, he took even greater pride in the rehabilitation of Sumerian culture and infrastructure. He was particularly known for his piety and support of temples. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Ur-Namma</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The poem ‘The Death of Utu-hengal and descent into the underworld’ written shortly after his death suggests he was betrayed (presumably murdered) by his own men. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">His son in law, Ur-Namma, had to fight unarmed rivals from Uruk for the succession, confirming the possibility of a coup. Ur-Namma was victorious and took the 'kingship' to Ur so the Neo-Sumerian Empire is also called the third Dynasty of Ur (Ur 111). </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">He then claimed to be the elder brother of the ancient hero Gilgamesh and hence a son of the Goddess Ninsun (of the wild cows), establishing his legitimacy. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Ur dynasty is not the only dynasty claiming descent from Ninsun, Gudea of lagash had made a similiar claim.<span style="text-indent: 14.4px;"> </span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">Records from Ur-Namma's time </span>emphasises his contributions to law, arts, culture, and infrastructure including the commencement of the great ziggurat at Ur. <span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjW0IFlPxVK3blPRtlIyvsJJ7Txwv_m0O-k81Iq9H_qjj-Tol8RoxK5-VR-G343LcAKzQvF9owO3XcTVIEsgXSpU1YHvD6iaxPgnPrWWxwj-44ykdCnc0FVf6W6N5tiVMW-rIpUD58agaPhvxeppwKL2a9p9BUmUpMg8_ih3MyTQGv5FRG6HQMkZhuRA/s800/800px-Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="800" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjW0IFlPxVK3blPRtlIyvsJJ7Txwv_m0O-k81Iq9H_qjj-Tol8RoxK5-VR-G343LcAKzQvF9owO3XcTVIEsgXSpU1YHvD6iaxPgnPrWWxwj-44ykdCnc0FVf6W6N5tiVMW-rIpUD58agaPhvxeppwKL2a9p9BUmUpMg8_ih3MyTQGv5FRG6HQMkZhuRA/w200-h150/800px-Ancient_ziggurat_at_Ali_Air_Base_Iraq_2005.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ziggurat of Ur</td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">Less is known about his military activities but it was he that evicted the Elamites, taking control of all of Sumer and pressing on to take control over Elam. He also conducted a devastating raid on the Gutian heartland. </span></span><p></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">During his reign, brigands were cleared from the roads and pirates from the coasts. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">He formed an alliance with Mari to oppose the growing military threat posed by the Amorites.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The Neo-Sumerian Empire was not Sumer of old returned.</span></b></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">In the middle of the twentieth century it was commonly assumed that Ur-Namma’s</span><span style="font-weight: bold; text-indent: 14.4px;"> ‘</span><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">Empire’ covered much of northern Mesopotamia and stretched as far as Byblos in Lebanon. </span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Part of the confusion was caused by the scant mention of his military campaigns and because the Neo-Sumerians called foreign kings ‘énsi’ as opposed to their own emperor-king ( mostly called Lugal or sometimes <span style="background: white; color: #3c424a; font-family: "Times New Roman",serif; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .15pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-AU; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ś</span>arrum (the Akkadian word for Lugal)</span><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;">. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">The title énsi </span>was the same for client kings and governors and caused some early archaeologists assume that many independent kings were actually appointed from Ur.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ur-Namma’s<span style="font-weight: bold;"> </span>most distant and northern-most city was likely Aššur (destined to become one of the Assyrian Empire’s capitals) . </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">And, after a brave start, things were going to get more difficult for the Neo-Sumerians.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">There had been a period of slightly better climate but the drought recurred beginning around 2200 BC. Southern Sumer, once the great food bowl and one of the most densely populated region on earth continued to lose land to salinisation and desertification.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Neo-Sumerians tried to rehabilitate some of their failing cities and settlements by building temples and performing devotions, trying to regain the favour of the local Gods to ensure their blessings but d<span style="text-indent: 14.4px;">espite their best efforts, land loss continued and Eridu, the oldest of their great settlement (not the first to become a city) was the first to be abandoned.</span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-indent: 14.4px;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">And the <b>‘barbarian’ threat </b>was far from ended. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ur-Namma who claimed to have ‘destroyed the Gutians’ by a punitive raids on their homeland, but the Gutians in their homeland proved to be a tougher proposition than evicting their last defeated remnants form Sumer.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span>Ur-Namma died on a later campaign against them (2095 BC) when his army was routed, leaving him isolated and out in the front</span>. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">And the Gutians were not the only of the Zagros hill tribes to attack the Neo-Sumerians. Around 2088 and 2031 a vast confederation of Hill tribes from a little further north to the Gutians ‘rose like locusts’ to attack Sumer. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">But if the Gutians were the scourge of the Akkadians, it was the Amorites who were the scourge of the Neo-Sumerians.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span>The Hebrew name ‘Amorite’, the Akkadian </span><span face="Helvetica-Oblique" style="font-style: italic;">Amurrūm</span> (transliterated as MAR.TU) and the <span>Sumerian </span><span face="Helvetica-Oblique" style="font-style: italic;">Tidnum </span>all mean ‘westerners’. They were related to the Arameans of later history and spoke an early version of Aramaic, a language similar to Hebrew. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">In typical Sumerian fashion, the Neo-Sumerians dismissed them as herding barbarians.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-style: italic;">The MAR.TU who know no grain.... The MAR.TU who know no house nor town, the boors of the mountains.... The MAR.TU who digs up truffles... who does not bend his knees (to cultivate the land), who eats raw meat, who has no house during his lifetime, who is not buried after death.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">But this was a serious under-estimation. The Amorites a little bit further north were rebuilding settlements that had been destroyed or devastated by drought, including the once powerful city of Ebla after its destruction by Sargon. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span face="TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT" style="font-weight: bold;">Shulgi, </span><span style="font-weight: bold;">Ur-Namma’s </span><span face="TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT" style="font-weight: bold;">son (</span><span style="font-weight: bold;">2094 – c. 2046 BC)</span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span>Shulgi was the greatest emperor of the dynasty. He finished the great Ziggurat at Ur. He improved roads and his was the first empire to set up a system of inns along them. </span>He is credited with standardising administrative processes, archival documentation, the tax system (including taxing temples) and the national calendar. He improved the army with more </span><span style="font-family: arial;">specialisation.</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhs9_eRYdAZrcLF9I6JISVCDEG9k-euTbe3cy9AF88LnnvjSgWxuS1rbatgl2s87EDiMp0VX3U7iv_02VkX6P6Vrj4pYApVZ91wgDmmh07iacc06APM9Ez_xRRl5nosWC-ezWCWEJNcTIarNDOS4Ze5brYAxSnfDWLtDsYA2YWkzNAVFYLcTBXcam4g8g/s320/Cylindrical%20seal%20of%20Shulgi.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="145" data-original-width="320" height="146" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhs9_eRYdAZrcLF9I6JISVCDEG9k-euTbe3cy9AF88LnnvjSgWxuS1rbatgl2s87EDiMp0VX3U7iv_02VkX6P6Vrj4pYApVZ91wgDmmh07iacc06APM9Ez_xRRl5nosWC-ezWCWEJNcTIarNDOS4Ze5brYAxSnfDWLtDsYA2YWkzNAVFYLcTBXcam4g8g/w320-h146/Cylindrical%20seal%20of%20Shulgi.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cylindrical seal of Shulgi, Louvre</td></tr></tbody></table><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Perhaps in line with the theme of exaggeration, he called himself a God and claimed he once ran between Nippur and Ur and back in the one day. A literary man, he spoke Elamite, Akkadian and Sumerian and wrote a long hymns to glorify himself, his manliness and his actions.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">His reign started with a punitive raid on the Gutians and then, after enjoying seven years of relative peace, he was almost constantly at war. Details are sketchy. He retained control of Susa but other parts of Elam rebelled and he had to deal with the massive incursion of hill tribes across his Eastern Border. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span>While he was in the East he decided to extend the Empire but even he needed multiple attempts to take the southern Hurrian strong hold city of </span>Simurrum (and its neighbouring ally Lullubi). Whether he took Nineveh and, if so, whether he managed to hold it is unclear but which he considered this greatest triumph. Admittedly Simurrum was virtually a city-fortress and stubbornly held, but it points to the weakness of even his reformed army.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">He had managed to keep the peace in the north-west, for a while, despite immigration of Amorites southwards and both Hurrians and Amorites began to appear in his army. Unfortunately towards the end of his reign, that the Amorites began to threaten Sumer.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Shulga, in some haste, tried to built a great (earthen) wall to try to keep them out. It was said to be 155 miles (250 kilometres) long. It was world’s first great wall built by a civilisation to keep barbarians.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">According to one version, it was too long for Shulgi to man properly and was not anchored by natural barriers so the Amorites could simply walk around it. Whether this was true or not, or whether it wasn’t finished, it was clearly a measure of his desperation and it was ineffective. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Amar-Sin and Shu-Sin</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span>Shulgi</span> was succeeded by his two sons both of whom used the Akkadian versions of their names. The first was <span style="font-weight: bold;">Amar-Sin</span> (2046-2037 BC), seemed to hold onto most of the Empire, but he is mainly recorded as campaigning in obscure so presumably unimportant places. The only ones that were recognisable were Urbilum (Erbil in northern Iraqi, Kurdistan region) and parts of Elam. It was he that unsuccessfully tried a building program to rehabilitate some of the failing Southern cities. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Shu-Sin</span> (2037 BC – 2028), his brother, also ruled for about 9 years and tried to stabilise his north-west region against the Hurrians and Amorites. He sent an army from Aššur to conquer (or reconquer) as far as Nineveh but soon he was facing a full scale fight with the Amorites on the other flank. He spent the rest of his time fortifying his southern cities and building his own great version of a(n earthen wall) around 2034 BC. It was called the Wall of Amurru after the Akkadian name for the Amorites. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t know the location of Shulga’s wall or whether it became part of the later Amurru Wall. The Ammaru wall stretched from the Tigris and Euphrates and a little beyond on either side. It was a 170 miles (280 km) long. It was located a little to the south of Kish so really only protected the Southern most cities. The ruins of it can still be seen today north of Baghdad.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Ibbi-Sin, the last Emperor.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> <span style="font-weight: bold;">(2028–2004 BC)</span></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Maybe the emperors of Ur were all a little crazy, claiming they were Gods related to the</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5oTfZZvpaE1vT4hnys81oFh0_mRZ3DQJ9irr3xeX2CPOJykx_ZsnvnGHcAwu_dulV1krBCNQTzGtxXC82CvCpJCaxhDKYn2uxue4MJ4LNj_M46T0c1t_a-7O8YPwod_oERNy_J4yT7iO1W-bqYPNleCh49XeGYWrJJ7svP18gEuSZP1DfcHpFUivr-A/s367/Ibbi-Sin.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="367" data-original-width="305" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5oTfZZvpaE1vT4hnys81oFh0_mRZ3DQJ9irr3xeX2CPOJykx_ZsnvnGHcAwu_dulV1krBCNQTzGtxXC82CvCpJCaxhDKYn2uxue4MJ4LNj_M46T0c1t_a-7O8YPwod_oERNy_J4yT7iO1W-bqYPNleCh49XeGYWrJJ7svP18gEuSZP1DfcHpFUivr-A/w166-h200/Ibbi-Sin.JPG" width="166" /></a></span></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /> moon God, Sin. If so, Ibbi-Sin, Shu-Sin’s son<span style="font-weight: bold;">, </span> was crazier than most. </span><p></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the middle of the catastrophe engulfing his empire, Ibbi-Sin seemed more focused on religious rituals and the selection of priests. Probably, like many Sumerians, he was hoping the favour of the Gods would make his problems go away.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">He then ordered more earthen fortifications to Ur and Nippur. On one, he claimed that the wall he had built was so imposing it would ‘make the lands secure and to make the highlanders and lowlanders bow down before him.’ How a mud-brick defensive wall around one city would strike fear into his enemies and unite his kingdom was never explained.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">As the Amorites began over-running the countryside and capturing cities, other cities were declaring independence. Brigands roamed the roads. With the drought and chaos, grain prices were said to reach 60 times normal. Susa declared independence (again) and turned hostile (again). </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Meanwhile, Shu-Sin proclaimed wondrous alliances and victories over the Amorites and Elamites. In one inscription “ … Ibbi-Suen, the king of Ur, overwhelmed Susa, Asamdun, and Awan like a storm, subdued them in a single day and seized the lords of their people …” </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">A bit like Hitler in his final bunker, he had retreated into fantasy. In the end all he had was one impoverished city. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Somewhere around 2004 BC the Elamites captured Ur and he died a prisoner.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">The Dynasty of Isin, pretenders to the throne</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ibbi-Sin had at least one competent governor, Ishbi-Erra in the city Isin, 20 miles south of Nippur. Ishbi-Erra was an Amorite from Mari working for the Sumerians and he got ready for what he saw coming by hoarding grain. Then he led his own army to have decisive victories over the (other) Amorites and eventually reclaimed Ur and Uruk from the Elamites. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">For the next hundred years, his dynasty took on the trappings of Neo-Sumerian Emperors.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">They were the most powerful of several independent Sumerian cities, keeping the peace and competing with places like Eshnunna, Aššur, Larsa and Lagash. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Meanwhile the Amorites were only getting stronger in their new capital Babylon in the Uri region. The remains of Sumer was finally conquered by the famous Hammurabi. It was he that created the first Babylonian Empire and ended Sumerian power in Mesopotamia forever.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">More on this in the next blog on the Amorite rulers. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Foot note 1: Abraham, the great patriarch</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Abraham, descendent of Noah and the great Hebrew patriarch was said to be born in the ‘Ur of the Chaldeans’ but this was much later. The (Iron Age) Chaldean dynasty of Babylon ruled Ur briefly from the late 7th century BC. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Not long after them, Ur was finally abandoned.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; min-height: 13.8px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">Foot note 2: Iraq, salinisation and today</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Through a sharp rise in population over the last fifty years and loss of productive land, Iraq is not alone in the region for going from an exporter to a net importer of food.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Many areas that were incredibly fertile in ancient times have long returned to desert. In more recent times, 30% of irrigated land has gone out of production, and Iraq continues to lose 25 000 hectares per year. There are significantly low yields on another 70% of its irrigated lands. Many farmers are reliant on subsidies which were slowed due to government deficits and it is hard for them to compete with cheap imported food. </span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Farming employs 20 % of the work force and contributes 3% to the GDP.</span></p><p style="font-stretch: normal; line-height: normal; margin: 0px; text-indent: 14.4px;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Iraq has also suffered a long period of war (s), turmoil, earlier sanctions, insurgency and ethnic violence. It is fortunate that it has oil and lots of it. While things are finally improving in the overall economy, attempts to improve local food production have not managed to gain a lot of traction yet.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p>I hope you have enjoyed this final blog on the Incredible Sumerians. </span></p><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; overflow: visible; padding: 0px;"><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">I also write Epic Fantasy set in ancient times and </span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;">exotic locations</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;">Please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">My first book : 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></span></p><div><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /></span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page <br /></span></a></span></span></span></span></div></div></h1></div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-26416498534834899052022-07-04T16:57:00.073-07:002022-09-16T18:51:14.700-07:00Sumer part 4 The Brutal Akkadians<p style="text-align: center;"> <span style="text-align: center;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan; text-align: center;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 14.4pt; text-align: center;"><b>Sumer
4<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 14.4pt; text-align: center;"><b>The Akkadian Empire (2334 – 2154 BC)<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Arguably</span>,<span style="font-family: arial;"> there were some Sumerian Lugals who created short
lived empires before Sargon but it is still Sargon who is most often credited with creating the world’s first Empire.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">His conquests ushered in the Akkadian
Period of Sumerian history.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Sargon of Akkad</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don't know Sargon's origin and we don't know his birthname. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sargon<i> (Šar-ru-um-ki-in) </i>is Akkadian for ‘the king who established’.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In one legend he was described as the illegitimate
child of a priestess who (a millennia before the time of the Moses story) sent him forth in a basket, with a woven lid and sealed with pitch, floating on the Euphrates river.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He was said to be found and adopted by a ‘drawer of water’
and become his ‘gardener’. It’s hard to know how humble these positions really were.
Agriculture and water were the major resources for Mesopotamian cities and
Sumerians delighted in their use of euphemisms. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sargon then became the ‘cup bearer’ (meaning senior general)
to the king of Kish, Ur-Zababa. He was also énsi of Akkad (possibly appointed
by Ur-Zababa).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">When (Lugal)-Zage-Si of Uruk conquered Kish, Sargon rebelled. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In one legend (following on a dream of Sargon that
Ur-Zababa would die) , Ur-Zababa kept sending him to Zage-Si to be killed but
the two formed what would prove to be a temporary alliance.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">After winning Kish and Babylon, Sargon headed south for a
showdown with Zage-Si near the southern city of Uruk (around 2334 BC) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">After defeating Zage-Si , he took him blindfolded and in a
collar to the holy city of Nippur and humbled him before Enlil’s altar. He then
went on to conquer city after city (by some accounts 34 cities) including
Ur, Lagash and Uma, destroying their walls. It is possible that Zage-Si ‘s campaigns may have weakened some of these and centralised military power in Sumer, making them ripe for conquest.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">After conquering all of Sumer, Sargon lead
successful campaigns into Northern Mesopotamia, the Zagros mountains and Elam.
He even conquered as far as Southern Anatolia and Northern Levant.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was claimed he ruled for 55 years. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p><b style="text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span></span></span></b><b style="text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;">The Background to the Akkadian Empire </b></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;">To understand what happened during the Akkadian Empire, we have to know the changes that occurred in the previous period (the Early Dynastic Period) </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><b style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians become more warlike</span></b></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">(As discussed in the last blog, and contrary to what is often said) Sumer seemed to be
remarkably peaceful (internally) throughout most of its incredibly long history. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Any battles that were fought did not involve great destruction of cities and infrastructure. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The temple was the centre of Sumerian life, including city administration and grain storage. The cities and the lands around them (with their infrastructure) were sacred. They were thought to be the property of the Gods that had taken residence within the cities. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumer was initially ruled by a theocracy who formed a government which, in some respects, extended beyond city walls to cult centres.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Most usually only one city had hegemony. Throughout the Uruk period this was Uruk which had the dominant culture of the region, which eventually extended well beyond Sumer.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> Around 3600 BC there is evidence of the destruction of a distant neighbour, Hamoukar, but that included a Sumerian trading enclave in the city so we don't know if the Sumerians were the aggressors. Besides this, it was outside Sumer. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Early Dynastic Period (after the great flood) began about 2900 BC. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Hegemony was awarded by the priests at the holy city of Nippur, the cult centre for worship of Sumer's prime God, Enlil . </span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbewVduPG-3N8a8Jh8cAI1t0es4HUml5Z4mgzukPbDNFrWAAvfM-Q6HUo9-sbupLDV8xNeqlWxiqVhsaYPC-HmlvCRahSDa548TAuhHUUk4LDxy1iw-IhC5l8yIfvxB8L0bUscWVAgUkdiI_AixeKP3nByoMYg-RQyTQ2JzANM4_I3PdVdIaFEvN3S0g/s800/800px-Ruins_from_a_temple_in_Naffur.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="536" data-original-width="800" height="214" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbewVduPG-3N8a8Jh8cAI1t0es4HUml5Z4mgzukPbDNFrWAAvfM-Q6HUo9-sbupLDV8xNeqlWxiqVhsaYPC-HmlvCRahSDa548TAuhHUUk4LDxy1iw-IhC5l8yIfvxB8L0bUscWVAgUkdiI_AixeKP3nByoMYg-RQyTQ2JzANM4_I3PdVdIaFEvN3S0g/s320/800px-Ruins_from_a_temple_in_Naffur.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ruins of Enlil's temple ('Ekur') at Nippur. <br />The meeting place of the Gods <br />and where man was created</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">At first this was given to Kish, the strongest city of that time. Later, it returned to Uruk as that city recovered. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> The syllabic form of cuneiform did not evolve until 2600 BC. Any inscriptions we have from before that is in the untranslated 'logographic' form, though we may recognise some of the kings names ( that continued in a special form through to later times)<span color="windowtext">. </span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The early part of the EDP is sometimes called the 'Heroic Age' because the only documents we have is legends written many, many, centuries later or the various forms of the Sumerian Kings lists that have rulers like Agga (Akka) of Kish ruling for 625 years. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumerian kings (lugals or ensi) emerged from the theocracy. At first they were subject to the power of the temple and attended to more secular matters.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Eventually they began to be seen as their God's representative on earth. In one (later) poem when Gilgamesh of Uruk refused to supply workers to Kish, he captured Agga of Kish by glowing with a heavenly light and sowing confusion amongst the soldiers of Kish. After that (in this poem at least) Gilgamesh recognises Agga's seniority and the conflict was resolved peacefully.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As the ‘Early Dynastic Period’ ( EDP 2900–2350 BC) progressed, Sumer's kings grew in secular power. Sumerians began to build palaces and ornate tombs
for them.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> Grave goods and artistic illustrations indicate increasing
militarisation. </span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBLiKuQF-efw8qkmuscnPDHgfF9TuLQiaNCnBGemJ7Nv_ReT9jFm1jJFNDafnrXD0Idajz834Zb1R8M8_jImXpnrBl_14zmXg6Qu6BtoazbPJHxkLXs0ZQNnBa04SWVsyzE8Zn76zFOeQnn37EDBgCjH3RON7vXo91EmBcJbnklpSStC4eUTWT1Etshw/s1920/1920px-Standard_of_Ur_-_War.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="840" data-original-width="1920" height="140" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBLiKuQF-efw8qkmuscnPDHgfF9TuLQiaNCnBGemJ7Nv_ReT9jFm1jJFNDafnrXD0Idajz834Zb1R8M8_jImXpnrBl_14zmXg6Qu6BtoazbPJHxkLXs0ZQNnBa04SWVsyzE8Zn76zFOeQnn37EDBgCjH3RON7vXo91EmBcJbnklpSStC4eUTWT1Etshw/s320/1920px-Standard_of_Ur_-_War.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The 'war' side of the 'standard of Ur' 26th century BC</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Then their is mention of increasing conflicts outside of Sumer with Elam, Ararat and Gudam.'</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Some time in the 26th century BC( 2600-2501 BC) Mesannepada of Ur is said to have taken the kingship from( Lugal Kitun of ) Uruk by force of arms. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This was the beginning the first dynasty of Ur .</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is around 2450 BC, in the middle of the EDP, we find the first clearly
documented battle between two Sumerian cities.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The fight
between Lagash and Umma.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The conflict between Lagash and Umma was over a piece of
land (as marked by an irrigation canal) that the neighbouring cities both
claimed. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">When it first reached crisis point, in keeping with the long
tradition, the two cities took it to mediation. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Mesilim, the lugal of Kish, awarded the land to Nirgirsu,
the God of Lagash (and hence to the people of Lagash). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He erected a stele to mark his decision and peace was
obtained for a hundred years. Umma was supposed to pay rent for any
part of this land that its farmers used, but their city remained
discontented and the rent was rarely paid. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">When it came to a head a hundred years
later attitudes had changed. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ush, the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>énsi of Umma simply marched his troops into
the land and smashed Mesilim’s stele. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Ensi of<b> </b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lagash, E-anna-tum, responded with force. His victory ( around 2450 BC) is recorded on the
fragmented ‘Stele of Vultures’. The army
from Umma was totally routed with the slaughter of 3,600 soldiers. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was an unimaginable loss for that time. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A typical Sumerian army of the time would be around 5,000.
The énsi of the city would have about 700 professional soldiers both as a
palace guard and to maintain order in the city; the rest would be a conscripted militia having to supply their own equipment. Some of them would be poorly
equipped skirmishers. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">When Ush fled back to his city he was murdered by his own
people, and his successor sued for peace. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Unfortunately, the border dispute was not really settled. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">E-anna-tum’s successors (who had similar names to him)
repelled two more attacks from Umma until a century later Lagash fell to (Lugal)-Zage-Si
who (was initially from Umma and) was on his way to establishing his ill fated empire.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>New equipment and tactics</b></span></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><b style="text-align: left; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Understanding
the extent of the slaughter</span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This battle marked a turning point in Sumerian society in
many ways. Firstly, it indicated escalating violence. Secondly, it demonstrated an
evolution in Sumerian military techniques and equipment.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t know what E-anna-tum
faced in his battle with Umma. We don’t know if he killed prisoners, but something
seemed to be making his army much more effective, and horribly so for his enemies.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He didn’t stop there. He went on to conquer
the Uri region and declare himself the king of Kish (which was still a prestigious title). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He then campaigned in Elam
, ‘destroying’ many cities including Susa. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He also defeated the powerful city of Mari in south
eastern Syria, demanding tribute. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Incidentally, it is also sometime around this period that Uruk under (Lugal)-Kisalsi of Uruk (and Ur) battles with Girsu (Lagash) repeatedly. Kisalsi doesn't appear in the king's list but was an historical figure. One could speculate that Lagash, for a time, was maybe strong enough to challenge Uruk for hegemony or possibly Uruk was regaining control after the reign of E-anna-tum. </span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The ‘Stele of Vultures’ suggests how E-anna-tum did it. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It shows the use of a tight phalanx
of spearmen wearing helmets, primitive armour coats with the king riding in a
chariot. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 36pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>The Phalanx<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A phalanx fighting in formation, with a wall of (rectangular
body-length) shields, is infinitely superior </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhadTky_hUIIhHax6D9Ia9cSSxBRfcVF47-QN1sjQQhnwr06kxreU5T7xTD8z-_XCSePppcTFfhdVq8ZhYnXZKY5qcwQbG5sVvoaxDrelrl4RX5LN8iEO-fUntCY1xtYEjHlZtma0LoKOcecikGnMCxXrUj7vEhb6WyW96_eNfuIerGTHKXLH7IE0pkeA/s848/800px-Stele_of_the_vultures_(war).jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="848" data-original-width="800" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhadTky_hUIIhHax6D9Ia9cSSxBRfcVF47-QN1sjQQhnwr06kxreU5T7xTD8z-_XCSePppcTFfhdVq8ZhYnXZKY5qcwQbG5sVvoaxDrelrl4RX5LN8iEO-fUntCY1xtYEjHlZtma0LoKOcecikGnMCxXrUj7vEhb6WyW96_eNfuIerGTHKXLH7IE0pkeA/s320/800px-Stele_of_the_vultures_(war).jpg" width="302" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;">to a mob of warriors fighting
individually (or what happens to one side if their shield wall breaks).<o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t know if Umma used the phalanx as well but it was
the phalanx (or the more successful use of it) with better equipped and trained
soldiers that accounted for the devastating Lagash victory. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They also made some previous weapons ineffective.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 36pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>The use of copper helmets<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The widespread use of copper helmets negated the killing
power of the mace, making it virtually obsolete. Why copper? This was the early Bronze Age
in the Middle East. Bronze, initially made with arsenic later with tin and sometimes some lead added, had started in
Mesopotamia 3,500 BC </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Perhaps padded copper helmets had adequate (or even
better) shock absorbing qualities for blunt trauma, and copper was more
readily available than its alloys.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 36pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Primitive armour<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The soldiers also wore coats (perhaps boiled leather or perhaps
wool) sewn with mini bossed-shields of bronze sewn all over them. This made the
various long bladed cutting axes less effective. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 36pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Axes evolving in response to the use of armour<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The stele of vultures shows E-anna-tum<b> </b>using something
in his left hand that might be a primitive form of ‘sickle sword’<b> </b>the
inside for hooking shields (and limbs) and the outside evolved from a long
bladed axe (it could be a whip etc.).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">To better penetrate armour, new axes evolved with narrow
bladed (bronze) heads rivetted into the shaft. It was an innovation that would
last for a couple of millennia.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 36pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Sumerian bows rendered less effective<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The early Sumerian bows had an estimated kill range of from
50 to 100 yards (an English long bow could achieve just short of 300 yards) .
Armour and the phalanx formation with its shield wall, suddenly rendered them (and
slings) much less effective, at least against the phalanx. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 36pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>The use of javelins<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians found an answer to this : lancers armed with
throwing spears. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A javelin sticking out of a shield renders it useless
until it can be removed. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The javelin has better penetrating power against leather
and primitive armour and they were used with throwing thongs to increase their
power and range.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">And a strike by a lance is usually disabling, if not lethal.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A volley of lances would easily disrupt the phalanx’s
formation, the Sumerian's super weapon. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">If you can disrupt a phalanx’s formation and it becomes
vulnerable.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 36pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Primitive Chariots<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">E-anna-tum climbed off his chariot to lead his troops in
battle. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Back then, even the nomads herded and fought on foot. They
only used carts for transport.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">‘Chariots’ back then were slower, clumsy affairs, more
like battle wagons. And along with other many limitations, they were limited by terrain. One
was found in Susa dating to E-anna-tum’s time but they were really only
suitable on the plains or on roads. They would be useless in wooded hill
country (like the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gutian homeland and
much of Elam).</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Most had four wheels and high sides to protect the crew.
They were pulled by four mules or donkeys (not horses which <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sumerians called ‘the foreign ass’). The
Sumerians invented the rein ring which gave them some ability to steer, but had
no ‘bit’ so the chariot pole was attached to wooden collars and head stalls for
their donkeys. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians invented two wheeled chariots, but the early
placement of the axle in the middle made them unstable if ever driven at speed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They would be nowhere near the fast, manoeuvrable and
devastating war machines of later history. Nor had the bigger and stronger
horses needed to pull them been bred. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They found most use as ‘fast’ land<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>couriers between cities, and for transporting
nobles and commanders into (and perhaps away from) battle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 36pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>The use of throwing lances from chariots.<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">E-anna-tum seems to be holding a lance while he drives his
chariot on the Stele of Vultures and has a quiver of more. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t know a lot about the wider use of chariots at that
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>time, but the shift to lancers allowed
at least one later king of Umma to develop an elite force of sixty chariots
armed with lance-throwers, to attack the enemy phalanx. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is somewhat speculative, but reasonable, to think that
Lugal-Zagesi (of Umma and then Uruk) a century after E-anna-tum had a large force of
lancers on foot with the addition of lancers on chariots as relatively mobile
shock troops.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 36pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo5; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Siege techniques<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Only a score of years before Zagesi’s victory, (En) shag-kush-ana
of Uruk lead a punitive raid into the north, destroying several cities (and leaving
a destruction layer at Kish). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t always know what the Sumerians mean when they say they ‘destroyed’ a city. Some seem to be a going concern not soon after wards. It is a translation usually of a terse comment and is
prone to the hyperbole common on celebratory inscriptions. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As a minimum, it must have involved looting and the removal of fortifications and maybe destruction of the palace.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">What was visited on Kish, however, was enough to leave
evidence in the archaeological record. It was permissible to ‘destroy’ a
foreign city of heathens but this was the first time this level of destruction was
visited by the Sumerians on a city in Sumer.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">The scale of his activities in the Uri region </span>might suggest more
effective siege techniques. We know Sargon later attacked one city by
tunneling under its walls , so he at least used sappers and had found some way to protect
them from missiles from above.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shag kush ana’s
raid also points to increasing racial tension between the ‘true’ Sumerians and
their largest racial minority, the Semitic Akkadians in the north. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">At the start of the EDP Kish was highly respected. Now we
have the Akkadians raiding the Sumerian cities in the south and trying to wrest
hegemony by force, followed by a deadly reprisal attack from the south.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Some Akkadian
Innovations<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>A professional army <o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Even before Sargon (2334–2279 BC) the number of professional
soldiers in Sumer was increasing. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sargon developed a standing army of 5,400. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He also established ‘niskum’, an elite class of veterans probably
equivalent to the old aga-ush lugai, or “royal soldiers.” They were given plots
of land and allotments of fish and salt every three months.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">While Sargon did not invent the phalanx, he was able to
train his men better, including moving over uneven ground or fighting in the
melee, and he wasn’t limited by the harvest and the usual fighting season.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo1; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Did Akkadians have better bows?<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In one illustration, Sargon’s grandson, Narām-Sîn, seems
to be holding a composite bow.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">These were invented maybe around this time, by Asian nomads,
before anyone fought on horseback. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They were much harder to make with wood,
sinew and horn glued and bound in layers. Their compact size was not their only
advantage. Without going into later innovations in long bows, they had a
draw weight as much as twice that of the simple bows of that time. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">I should briefly mention that (despite what you may have read)
flint was the preferred arrowhead for most of the bronze age. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Making arrow
heads in any number with bronze would have been impractical with the technology of the time. It would have required molten metal poured into a (single
use) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mould (clay, sand etc ). Then you
needed cold-metal hammering followed by careful filing to bring your arrow head into a
point.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Flint arrow heads were far cheaper and easier to make. An archer could
make his own with simple tools, if he so chose.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Even with this limitation, a compound bow would have enough
penetrating power to pierce leather and armoured coats.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They would be a powerful counter to lancers
with much greater range and rate of fire. And they could easily devastate the
clumsy battle carts with their lancers and the animals that pulled them.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t know for sure if what Naram-Sin held was a composite bow. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Other
illustrations show Akkadians using simple bows and recurved bows (another innovation), so we really don’t
know which were their main bows. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">C.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Life under the Akkadians<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">A Centralised Economy<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The economy of Akkad was founded on the successful
Sumerians which made it highly organised and somewhat centralised, with
standardised vessels for grain and oil. Tax was paid in produce or labour.
There were huge agricultural surpluses and plunder flooding into Akkad.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sargon routinely destroyed city walls of those he defeated
to prevent rebellion. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He sometimes appointed (Akkadian) governors
in cities like Susa of Elam. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is not true, as some have said, that he did this routinely.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerian Kings list and records
of subsequent rebellions show that he more often used the local rulers as client kings. Both governors and client kings would be called ‘énsi’ (there was only one lugal now), maybe this caused some confusion. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He introduced Akkadian (an Eastern Semitic language) as
the lingua franca throughout his empire, written in cuneiform. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumerian <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>remained
the language of science and religion. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">B. Sargon, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the
darling of future Mesopotamians<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sargon was the darling of later generations. Like many
conquerors, Sargon was destined to be viewed through 'rose coloured' glasses by
subsequent generations who weren’t on the side of his victims . <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Southern Sumerians hated him with a passion.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The truth, a brutal regime<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">While there are limited contemporary records, we have later tablets that appear to be copied from original inscriptions and they paint a
brutal <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>picture of Akkadian oppression.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the battle for Uruk Sargon said he <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“destroyed the city and tore down its walls”
and (as he moved further south) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“... all
the land … as far as the sea. he destroyed”. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He seemingly emptied the land of people, settlements and animals.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Akkadians were efficient conquerors, but their
merciless tactics engendered only hatred in their subjects at a time there was already friction between the Akkadians in the north and the native Sumerians in the South. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Of course the Sumerians were not the only conquered people that hated them and their tactics.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In his old age Sargon faced a major rebellion. It was so large that he became besieged
in Akkad. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He responded with slaughter. After one battle alone he records “3,600
killed …20 heaps of men killed and buried. ,”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Civilians enslaved<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Previously, Sumerian civilians only became enslaved<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>because of debts or if they sold themselves
or their children into slavery. Now they were (like foreigners had already been) part of war booty. In fact, the
name of Sargon’s wife was Ashlultum which means “I took you as spoil.”</span></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b> C. Sargon’s two
sons Rimush and Manishtushu</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Rimush, the butcher</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The first of Sargon's two sons to rule was even more
brutal.<b> <o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He had to deal<b> </b>with almost constant rebellions and
responded with a policy of terror. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">"Rimuš, king of the world, in battle over Adab and Zabalum was victorious, and 15,718 men he struck down, and 14,576 captives he took ...
Their cities he conquered, and their walls he destroyed. Further, from their
two cities many men he expelled, and to annihilation he consigned them.” <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Rimush introduced mass slaughter of not only soldiers but civilians. He visited large scale
destruction on the Sumerian city-states, all meticulously recorded in sadistic detail.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the end, a great many major Sumerian cities were
destroyed, and Sumerian human losses were enormous<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He was assassinated in a coup after a short reign, according to one legend by his brother <b>Manishtushu</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">His brother’s military exploits are poorly documented but
he faced a continuation of the general revolts and extended control well into
Elam and on either side of the Persian Gulf.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He was also assassinated by members of his own court,
after a fifteen year reign.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: center; text-indent: -18pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">D.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Naram-Sin 2254–2218 BC<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The greatest
Akkadian Emperor, a Curse and the Beginning of the End<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Naram-Sin<b> </b>means ‘beloved of Sin’ (the Akkadian name
for the moon God,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nanna).</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLwWQsymZYctIxUPU7oj26ZbtvVdUVNRXQXjSLtmE-eefZ3imaV3gfTdPqggKaf7ktiuXgb0EYi7P3Z5kiNhGGqbh9VQKW8WTYwDqRO_ne_vWP7olRdOLZRqug_BbuH2ZatpOq7aL4qJVNt7GsQxRAZ-ng-3pzCAUdOr7d77v9JBRqtDcw-GM7f13YMA/s1280/Sargon_of_Akkad_(1936).jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="594" data-original-width="1280" height="149" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLwWQsymZYctIxUPU7oj26ZbtvVdUVNRXQXjSLtmE-eefZ3imaV3gfTdPqggKaf7ktiuXgb0EYi7P3Z5kiNhGGqbh9VQKW8WTYwDqRO_ne_vWP7olRdOLZRqug_BbuH2ZatpOq7aL4qJVNt7GsQxRAZ-ng-3pzCAUdOr7d77v9JBRqtDcw-GM7f13YMA/s320/Sargon_of_Akkad_(1936).jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Naram-Sin (once thought to be Sargon)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He was Manishtushu 's son, Sargon’s grandson and Akkad’s
greatest emperor. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Early on in his reign, he faced 'the great revolt'. It was
(said to be) even larger than either of what his grandfather or uncles faced, a
grand coalition of Southern and Northern cities lead by the lugals of Uruk and
Kish, and the énsi of Nippur. It took him nine military expeditions to put it down.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">To celebrate, he built a temple to himself and declared
himself a God.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the following<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>years
triumph seemed to follow triumph. He already had control of Elam and had statues of himself erected there, but he went on to campaign in southern
Anatolia and the Levant. </span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuOuNOmAuCGQvIuNLuvKfWLt7jPmIfFWFYvhWb799uhS4UO-DMAGmJwiG586vIi2MrHr1oJBvOxargxLIsRYwmvHdJm1jSDKMFIH5fbjPJtjXwiT0oWtjqQHzwnqjixaPSIYL6_VdWlir4PJOq5X-Af4Q3i9PWUt9VMBriCcJCa-PMyvfD5mEnj3JMxA/s800/Empire_akkad.svg.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="623" data-original-width="800" height="249" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuOuNOmAuCGQvIuNLuvKfWLt7jPmIfFWFYvhWb799uhS4UO-DMAGmJwiG586vIi2MrHr1oJBvOxargxLIsRYwmvHdJm1jSDKMFIH5fbjPJtjXwiT0oWtjqQHzwnqjixaPSIYL6_VdWlir4PJOq5X-Af4Q3i9PWUt9VMBriCcJCa-PMyvfD5mEnj3JMxA/s320/Empire_akkad.svg.png" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Empire under Naram-Sin (from Sémhur,
Wiki)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">How much 'hands on' control he had over these more
distant regions is unclear, but he certainly demanded tribute.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was under his reign that the Empire reached its
greatest extent in land, power and wealth.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">And yet later Mesopotamians believed his reign marked the
beginning of the end for the Empire. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Whether this was true or not, the multiple catastrophes that were visited on the Empire began in his time and by late in his son's reign, the Empire was on borrowed time. </span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><br />
</span><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The Curse of
Agade (Akkad).<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">To the Sumerians, the Akkadians (for all their sins) were
bringing down the wrath of the Gods upon them.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">One legend applies to Sargon himself, but it was Naram-Sin, their greatest emperor, who was the most famous for being cursed. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Most the legends portray him as brave but a tragic, flawed, figure
an object lesson on the dangers of hubris and refusal to listen to the Gods. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the Cutha legend he ignores all portents and decides to
battle a supernatural horde that were conquering the hinterlands. He famously
asks "what lion practiced divination?”<span style="background: white; color: grey;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He sends forth three great armies in three years and none
return. While many other misfortunes reign down on his people he is plagued by
despair and doubts, until finally he repents. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ishtar then warns him that Enlil has a plan for these
creatures to punish other evil do-ers. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">At the end, he is said to leave a stone tablet to both record the story
and warn future rulers against his terrible folly .<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He is more directly cursed in at least two other legends. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The ‘Curse of Agade' (Akkad), was written not too long
after the Empire's fall. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It begins with how the Akkadians in Sargon’s time had
induced Inanna to take residence in their city by building a lavish temple for her.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It continues in some detail about the wealth and blessings that she (and
other Gods) bestowed on the city.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Suddenly the city loses favour with Enlil, the reasons are
never explained except by “ (Enlil) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>heard words from Ekur.” </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ekur means ‘mountain
house’ and was the dwelling place of the gods near the heavens. It was also specifically the name of
Enlil’s<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>temple at Nippur, built on a
hill.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Enlil then insists the other Gods desert the city,
removing their gifts.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Naram-Sin never understands why he has lost the God's favour. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><i>(If he asked his Sumerian subjects, I sure they could have explained in some detail.)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Finally, he declares war against the God Enlil, sacking
the holy city, Nippur, and destroying Enlil's imposing hill-temple there. After
that, he declares himself a God.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This results in him being given a terrible curse by a
total of eight Gods. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It seems incredible that Naram-Sin might sack Nippur, the holiest city in Sumer. He spent some time building there, but
it is recorded that his son spent many years restoring it, so maybe it's true, we don't know.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the much later 'Weidner Chronicle' (an early attempt at
history written in Babylon in 500 BC) it was claimed<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“<i>Naram-Sin destroyed the people of Babylon</i><i>,
so twice Murduk </i><i>summoned the forces of Gutium </i><i>against him. Marduk gave his kingship to the
Gutian force. </i>... <i>he (Marduk) destroyed his people by famine. From the
rising of the sun unto the setting of the sun they opposed him and gave him no
rest ...”. <o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Of course, this is a bit anachronistic, Babylon wasn't a
great city at that time and its God, Nergal, had not yet risen to become the
head of the Mesopotamian pantheon. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">E.<span style="font-size: 7pt; font-stretch: normal; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b>Shar-kali-shari ,</b> <b>Naram-Sin’s son </b></span></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 32.4pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo4; text-align: center; text-indent: 0cm;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>and </b><b style="text-indent: 0cm;">an Empire in decline</b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">More on what happened in a minute, but the ‘Curse of
Agade’ is written in the form of the Mesopotamian <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘naru’ <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>literature. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It uses an historical figure, usually a king, who describes legendary events in
such compelling prose that for many it was initially thought to be autobiographical.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It also caused many to question what Naram-Sin could have
possibly left for his son Shar-kali-shari (2217–2193 BC) after his string of misfortunes.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But ‘naru’ literature, like the Epic of Gilamesh or the
Legend of Sargon, was not history.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Contemporary reports, suggest that the Empire was still
very much a going concern in the early part of Shar-kali-shari’s<b> </b>reign. He
started well enough. He had various victories over independent Elamite cities,
rebelling Sumerians, the Amorites (north-western semitic people) and the Gutian
barbarians. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He even made an expedition to the cedar forests to get
wood for temples in Babylon and Nippur. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was some time after these initial successes, disaster
struck for the Empire Sargon created. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Fast forward and the sparse evidence we have shows him really struggling towards the end of his reign.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He cannot stop the raiding Gutians who are running off Sumer's cattle. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Several southern cities have declared their independence and cities in Elam have not only declared their independence but are beginning to expand their territory at the
Empire’s expense.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Exactly when the Akkadian empire fell is uncertain. <o:p></o:p>What followed after his death was several civil wars, with four emperor-kings in three years (including one énsi from Uruk) .</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> By the time the dust settled, all
that was left of the empire was a rump state holding Akkad and a few nearby
cities. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p>There was a modest renaissance under king Dudu 2189
BC – 2169 BC and his son, Shu-turul but the Empire was finished, they were to be the last independent kings of Akkad. Akkad would fall to Uruk a second
time in 2154 BC, marking the official end of the world’s first Empire.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The Catastrophes
that plagued the Empire.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">1. Drought<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The climate was dry during the last Glacial maximum. As the glaciers retreated there was a period where the world was warmer than today (the Atlantic Period) and overlapping that time there was a
wet/fertile period for many parts of the world (6000-3500 BC).</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">For the moment it is best know as ‘the African humid period’ though it wasn’t confined to Africa and the Sahara. It also included many other areas important to mankind like the Eastern Mediterranean, North and East Africa, Southwest
Asia and parts of North America.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Many deserts were smaller and irrigation in hot, dry, Sumer brought forth a fabulous
bounty for its inhabitants.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Since that time, many of these regions have been slowly drying. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">By the time of the Akkadian Empire, Sumer, which had been
the ‘bread’ basket of a vast region was approaching the end of its most
productive era. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There were shorter term fluctuations and the Akkadian
Empire faced what was caused the ‘4.2-kiloyear event’.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> It is such a gentle term
to describe what was a dreadful catastrophe for many regions, including Mesopotamia, the worst climatic event of the modern, Holocene period and lasting (with some variability) three centuries. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Some parts of the world escaped. Others suffered terrible floods but places like northern Africa,
northern China, northern Iberia and the Middle East there was a catastrophic
drought.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Nile floods failed,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>the old Kingdom of Egypt collapsed.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sargon had already been forced to import (mostly rain-fed)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>grain from the (Mediterranean) region in the
far north of Mesopotamia to pay his army and large work force. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Late in the reign of Naram-Sin, the drought hit in its
full fury. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There was widespread famine and depopulation.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="item">Thriving cities such as </span>Tell
Leilan and Tel Brak in <span class="item">the far north-east of Syria became ghost
towns for centuries, their farms became desert lands. Archeological investigations revealed many animals, even their earth worms, were unable to
survive.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="item">Southern Sumer was always arid and relied
on her rivers, but with little rain or snow on the mountains her </span>great
rivers flowed poorly. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">With increased evaporation, poor water-flow and a high
water table, salinity rose in the water ways.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Water with a saline content worsened as it lay in the
irrigation ditches or in the fields, but it was all they had to irrigate with, and the
soil degraded.<span class="item"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The rich emotive language of ‘the Curse of Akkad (Agade)’ reflects
what was a terrible calamity.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="item"><i>“For the first time ... </i></span><i>t<span class="item">he great agricultural tracts produced no grain,</span> t<span class="item">he inundated tracts produced no fish, the irrigated orchards
produced neither syrup nor wine, the gathered clouds did not rain, the </span><span class="italic">masgurum</span><span class="item"> did not grow.”<o:p></o:p></span></i></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="item" style="font-family: arial;">Food prices sky rocketed <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="item">“... <i>one shekel’s worth of oil was
only one-half quart,</i></span><i> o<span class="item">ne shekel’s worth of grain
was only one-half quart. . . .</span> <span class="item">such prices in ... all
the cities!</span></i><span class="item">” </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><i><span style="font-family: arial;">“<span class="item">He who slept on the roof, died on the
roof,</span> h<span class="item">e who slept in the house, had no burial,</span>
p<span class="item">eople were flailing at themselves from hunger.”<o:p></o:p></span></span></i></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">2. Trade and
commerce dried up<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">“<i>On its canal bank tow-paths, the grass grew long. On
its highways laid for wagons, the grass of mourning grew.”<o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">3. Local revolts.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Akkadians were deeply unpopular. All the Akkadian
rulers faced revolts but, with famine stalking the land, discontent grew. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Naram-Sin (in the early part of his reign) was said to face
the ‘Great Revolt’ a massive coalition of enemies ‘…<i>when the four quarters
of the world revolted against me</i>’. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">4. Barbarians.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The drought forced the nomadic herders off their
traditional lands into regions that had been traditionally occupied by
sedentary farmers. They were better able to cope with drought and salinity
because they could roam their herds over larger areas, taking advantage of
whatever feed there was, and their numbers grew.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some sedentary
farmers and townspeople hit the road to join them, or in search of food, and the numbers of nomads grew even more.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Nomads have the advantage of hit and run tactics in their
raids. They could rustle cattle and other livestock or raid soft targets like
isolated farms, trade caravans and smaller settlements and be gone before help
could arrive.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A city might <i>seem</i> secure behind its walls, but it needs both farmers and trade to feed itself.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Civilisation, through the efficiency of specialisation and
infrastructure, allows the land to support a far greater population than under a subsistence
economy. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">When this breaks down (in a catastrophic way) cities struggle for food. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This, the drought, and the barbarian raids all had a dreadful
multiplier effect on the famine.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">A. Barbarians to
the East, the Gutians<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Almost directly to their East in the Zagros region of Iran
was the homeland of the Gutians.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Not a lot is known about them. They had no written
language and left no records. Their names suggest their language was not linked
to any other known language. They were described as fair in appearance in
contrast to the dark haired (possibly Dravidian) Sumerians. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They had been pacified by Sargon but they broke free and
began raiding. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the curse of Agade, they were seen as ‘god’s scourge’, wicked
and violent ...<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(an)<i> unhappy people
unaware how to revere the gods, ignorant of the right cultic practices</i>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Even the great king Naram-Sin in the later part of his
reign was hard put to repel them. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">More used to victory, he lost two of his battles against their
army.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">B. ‘Barbarians’
to the north, the Amorites<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The (‘North Western Semitic’) Amorites likely came from (the
Jebel Bishri mountains of) central Syria. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They were originally nomadic herders
and they prospered, spreading out across the fertile triangle, as far as Canaan and
the northern part of Mesopotamia.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They would become much more important later in history,
contributing to the fall of the Neo-Sumerians and the rise of Babylon and, after
the Bronze Age Collapse, they would re-emerge as the (Iron Age) Aramean states and their Aramaic language would be come a local <span class="ilfuvd"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">lingua franca</span></span>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The drought aided their herders but they also began
settling in some of the devastated cities and towns in the north of Mesopotamia. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Around 2250 BC they
began rebuilding the once great (Eastern-Semitic) city of Ebla that had been
destroyed by Sargon. So they were developing a power base in a region that was once
controlled by the (Eastern-Semitic) Akkadians.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Still, the Amorites were mostly a problem for later.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The fall of
Akkad<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The drought, rebellion and the Gutians brought the once
great Akkadian Empire to its knees. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Eventually, Uruk defeated Akkad and ruled
it for thirty years until the Gutians (2154 BC) over-ran the north, the
South and Elam.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Gutians set a base near Akkad, beginning the time
known as the Gutian dynasty.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><o:p><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></o:p></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p>I hope you have enjoyed this fourth blog on the Incredible Sumerians. </span></p><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; overflow: visible; padding: 0px;"><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: 400;">Next and final blog in this series : </span><span style="font-size: large; font-weight: 400;"> </span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: 400;">The Sumerians 5: </span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium; font-weight: 400;">Ruled by Barbarians: (the Gutian Dynasty), the Renaissance (the Neo-Sumerian Empire) and pretenders to the throne (the Dynasty of Isin) .</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">I also write Epic Fantasy set in ancient times and </span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;">exotic locations</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;">Please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">My first book : 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></span></p><div><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /></span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></span></div></div></h1><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-54534388037759983632022-03-02T22:37:00.093-08:002024-01-06T19:02:04.834-08:00The Incredible Sumerians part 3 After the flood: Recovery, Kings and Emperors. <p style="text-align: center;"> <span style="text-align: center;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan; text-align: center;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; mso-no-proof: yes;">The Incredible Sumerians part 3 </span></b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; mso-no-proof: yes;">The recovery, peaceful times, lugals (Sumer's great kings) </span></b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; mso-no-proof: yes;">and, finally, empires before Sargon of Akkad.</span></b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Introduction.</span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Towards the end of the Uruk period (around 3100 BC) the Sumerian civilisation collapsed from continued climate change that brought both a terrible prolonged drought and a Great Flood (in southern-most Sumer). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This catastrophic, once in a thousand year flood, is the one that inspired the biblical legend of the great deluge.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was followed by a dark age, continuing at least for a couple of hundred years, but in many
regions far longer. It would take almost seven centuries for the entire region and its surrounds to reach a full recovery.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">During this period, trade dried up, larger settlements shrank and smaller settlements were struggled.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There would be two periods remaining when the Southern cities
of Sumer would rise again and be powerful.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The first of the two periods was called the ‘Early Dynastic Period’ (2900 BC- 2270 BC)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>named after
the same period in Egyptian history. The terminology is a little confusing when applied to Sumer. Unlike Egypt, Sumer did not have a single 'pharaoh' or a single capital.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In between the two final periods (where Sumer continued to be dominated by the south), was the Akkadian Empire which was centred in the northern region.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The final period for a powerful Southern Sumer is called 'the third Dynasty of Ur (Ur III)' lasting little more than a hundred years <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2112 BC
– c. 2004 BC. After that Southern Sumer’s wealth, population and power collapsed and it increasingly began to return to desert.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Kish and the
north of Sumer</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">For millennia, Mesopotamia and the surrounding regions had been dominated by the great
cities of Southern Sumer, especially Uruk.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">During the dark age and the early recovery, there was one region that managed to keep the flickering candle of Sumerian civilisation alive. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was in the
north, the ‘Uri region’, where the Tigris and the Euphrates emerge from
mountainous gorges to first run on the alluvial plain. In many places there, the
great rivers run above the level of the plain. It can still flood, but at different times to the south. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">While
it was/is not immune to the problem of drought and salinity, it is far more
resistant than the then heavily irrigated South and it is more resistant to drought than the rain fed lands
agricultural lands in the north. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It has remained very productive through till today. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It only ever had one dominant city at a time. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">One day it would host the Akkadian Empire, centred on
Akkad. Much, much, later it would be called the region of ‘Babylonia’ named
after that ancient city and finally it would become home to Baghdad, the second largest city in the Arab world.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But this was five thousand years ago and Akkad
and Babylon were small, unimportant towns. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This was the time of the great city of Kish.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Kish not only survived the dark age, but thrived<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> in the early after-math </span>and around 2900 BC gained hegemony over all of
Sumer. It defeated enemies from both Elam and the highland region of the Zagros
mountains.</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgseyPwTLvBo9Xgn79QSzVZ8E4WyyaWPrppvRDa_NfdQ6kmJFi8GtSngPWD0vZ6m3X1q04ORqbBig2qlDvcuqf1BhK6FFpf-OuqQ1LpvcHEnb0DY031RRCSLXrcuFiHvaDaZBydl-YuJ1wg8Yt6fG_-0N9oQW28nxnXq8vri8twdu6ZbZSheycGN_lkkQ=s2048" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1536" data-original-width="2048" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgseyPwTLvBo9Xgn79QSzVZ8E4WyyaWPrppvRDa_NfdQ6kmJFi8GtSngPWD0vZ6m3X1q04ORqbBig2qlDvcuqf1BhK6FFpf-OuqQ1LpvcHEnb0DY031RRCSLXrcuFiHvaDaZBydl-YuJ1wg8Yt6fG_-0N9oQW28nxnXq8vri8twdu6ZbZSheycGN_lkkQ=w200-h150" width="200" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ishtar's temple, Kish (<i>Osama Amin</i>). </span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /><o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In one way this would prove to be a vision of the future, as
Sumer declined due to climate change, but that process would take another 900
years. For the moment, Southern Sumer was nowhere near finished.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The Kish
Civilisation<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A place as great and enduring as Sumer had several ethnic
minorities, especially in border towns.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The greatest ethnic minority was in the
north of Sumer. They spoke the now extinct ‘Eastern’ Semitic languages (which
included Akkadian). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">One Archaeologist coined the term ‘Kish Civilisation’ to
describe the shared culture of the Northern Sumer, Northern Mesopotamia<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and the Northern Levant, but that term is highly
misleading. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The people of Kish obviously interacted and traded (and sometime fought) with their cousins to the
north. They did indeed share aspects of a culture that had incorporated both Semitic and the Sumerian culture, and the cultures of the advanced Neolithic peoples that had preceded both of them.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">However, Southern Sumer had been the dominant culture of the region for millennia. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The closer one moved towards it, the greater its influence over culture,
mythology, language and politics.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Politically and culturally, the people of the Uri region were southern
looking. They didn't see themselves as part of their northern neighbours. There was no true "Kish Civilisation'. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Between the north and the south (the differences would contribute to friction later) but they and the rest of Sumer definitely saw them as part of
Sumer. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>2600 BC:</b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b>Widespread</b> <b>Recovery, Kish
loses hegemony.<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">By 2600 BC the whole region (Southern Sumer, upper
Mesopotamia, the Northern levant and Western Iran) were beginning to recover. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Kish could not maintain its economic and political dominance
over its increasingly powerful and wealthy neighbours and while they it still managed to remain locally powerfully, it, for a time,
contracted.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The great cities
of Southern Sumer recover.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">By 2600 BC powerful city states such as Uruk (especially) and also Ur, Lagash, Adab and later Umma emerged to compete with one another
(for power, trade and prestige). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was a great time. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumer had a massive agricultural surplus (especially date,
barley and vegetable oil). It exported wool, linen and finished goods like <span class="hgkelc">pottery, leather goods, baskets, wool, textiles and
jewelry</span>. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was short of almost everything else, even wood and stone.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Busy caravans and ships plied to and fro. Its merchants travelled
into the neighbouring lands in search of resources and trade, and to set up
trading colonies. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They didn’t yet have domesticated camels and the smaller
horses of the time were not popular. Their best form of overland <b>transport</b>, when it was
available, was via Sumer’s intricate canal system. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Boats can transport far more
than carts. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Barges hauled by mules
and donkeys (being slowly led along ‘tow paths’) were able to carry (slowly) a massive fifty times what they
could with a cart on a dirt road.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The <b>climate</b> (for a period) was kinder for the whole region, and
one 'neighbour' civilisation to emerge in the east was the Indus Valley Civilisation. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">At its peak
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(around 2500 BC) the 'IVC' far exceed Sumer in population and area, but it relied mainly on rain fed agriculture and sadly it was destined to suffer the same fate as Sumer. By 1900 BC it had succumbed to the drying climate and the
influx of nomadic herders (in its case the famous Aryans).</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But that was in the future.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Recovery to the North,
a Tale of two cities,.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEicGkVaW-y2rxHvFz-BsFYrzRzaLkprVO74SXbRDbV-t8dqv0g_LJDW_f7ytR0YwGFroY1iY70iF_y0hVtgS8e8TdppTsCLOKFT3Tz7U2AYKkXYCAk-rwRtVrrGYT2Vk4-eArzBT-hvk4BIM07EgQVlh5eGSWPG2FTJ_-fOA3yG9UJMlW1qiKZneL1Y8w=s203" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="175" data-original-width="203" height="172" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEicGkVaW-y2rxHvFz-BsFYrzRzaLkprVO74SXbRDbV-t8dqv0g_LJDW_f7ytR0YwGFroY1iY70iF_y0hVtgS8e8TdppTsCLOKFT3Tz7U2AYKkXYCAk-rwRtVrrGYT2Vk4-eArzBT-hvk4BIM07EgQVlh5eGSWPG2FTJ_-fOA3yG9UJMlW1qiKZneL1Y8w=w200-h172" width="200" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ebla (wiki)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;">Two great cities emerged in the Eastern Semitic people to
the north of Sumer. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Ebla </b>was in the northern Levant and was partly
protected from the events at the end of the Uruk period.<br /> It recovered earlier,
building its first royal palace around 2700 BC.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>At its height, it controlled a relatively vast amount of territory, almost
half the size of modern-day Syria (which is outlined on the map).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b></b></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiGot0C-lHeC38LbAIbUcrjcCOew4F--M9VKhX_cz3mQtFUT7njGltLtunw_GzKW-XpgufLu60B3GgBhn2enm46fJjxv2apIri_79DtTRNhqSKUZd0pbgIYBzlooF7NSe42sgdrkTdoJH4F5AF4v74vlr2b3yzsmuLPqF3H-JUN3XhFZkLKz8eo7X3v9Q" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img alt="" data-original-height="212" data-original-width="261" height="163" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiGot0C-lHeC38LbAIbUcrjcCOew4F--M9VKhX_cz3mQtFUT7njGltLtunw_GzKW-XpgufLu60B3GgBhn2enm46fJjxv2apIri_79DtTRNhqSKUZd0pbgIYBzlooF7NSe42sgdrkTdoJH4F5AF4v74vlr2b3yzsmuLPqF3H-JUN3XhFZkLKz8eo7X3v9Q=w200-h163" width="200" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Mari (Wiki)<br /><br /></span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><br />Mari </b>(on the Middle Euphrates), had a similar
ethnic population and began life as a planned city (around 2900 BC). It was designed
as the most northerly river port, strategically placed to capture the overland
trade. It was briefly abandoned before being built again on old foundations
around 2500 BC, after which it grew rapidly. <o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Both cities dominated their neighbouring settlements and had
periods of prosperity and reverses, but they became particularly strong around
2500 BC ... and they were headed for a showdown. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Mari, the upstart, launched a war against Ebla around 2423
BC which lasted back and forwards for a hundred years. It often had the upper
hand, until it was defeated by an alliance of Ebla, Nagar and Kish around 2300
BC.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">More information
, but still huge gaps<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">For Sumer’s long and early history (before 2600 BC) we have only have the
results of limited excavations (as explained) and legendary accounts of
hero-kings like Gilgamesh of Uruk, written many centuries after the events they
describe. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Added to this we have terse and unreliable entries in the Sumerian Kings list(s). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">After 2600 BC, the Sumerians left lots of clay tablets, many
unfortunately looted or damaged and grave goods (especially Ur). They also erected stêlai
(stone monuments) mostly recording victories and also deposited celebratory stone vases in Nippur, the sacred city and home of Sumer's prime god Enlil.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We have some idea of Sumer's laws , literature, music,
wisdom-literature and royal correspondence but there are major gaps, especially
in our understanding of their political and military history.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumer had lots of literature but no
historians, and the greatest pre-occupation of the industrious Sumerians
was commerce.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Were Sumerian
Cities constantly at war with each other?<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumer, for its time, was highly urbanised and the most densely settled region in the world, it’s city-states often separated by little more than boundary stones or
canals. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">For this reason, early archaeologists assumed that
Sumerian city states would be ‘constantly’ at war with one another for dominance
and land and water rights. This supposition has been repeated so often that it has passed into accepted fact. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The truth is a little different.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">While the evidence is scant, it suggests that throughout <i>most</i>
of Sumer’s very long history it was remarkable peaceful. Battles did occur between Sumerian city states but they were relatively uncommon, often smaller in scale and any destruction to cities or infrastructure was mostly minimal.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Lagash versus Umma,
2450 BC<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Half way through the Early Dynastic Period, things began to change.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The first recorded conflict between Sumerian City states is also the most famous and is the one illustrated when claiming Sumerian city states were constantly at war with each other. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">At the time, it was most certainly a major battle and it marked a turning point in Sumerian history, ushering in a time of increasing conflict.</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhI2FYrA4tgUQxw5YveXrbM5PBBLQlKGPPTV3q9vs4Dt5TkyaOpdvPf3anhjUfDzTYSM-Cm0MW6O_qONVur7NefPLH7lg1UBvQA10CDKbuN4ilcNHR9sdgEQkPfDaMLZaU0jk4AvAuMS-uZx6jGJX2vv6YmOX1rRZXB7UHMfAaf-3ThAd_UNSNu15dr5Q=s1064" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1064" data-original-width="800" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhI2FYrA4tgUQxw5YveXrbM5PBBLQlKGPPTV3q9vs4Dt5TkyaOpdvPf3anhjUfDzTYSM-Cm0MW6O_qONVur7NefPLH7lg1UBvQA10CDKbuN4ilcNHR9sdgEQkPfDaMLZaU0jk4AvAuMS-uZx6jGJX2vv6YmOX1rRZXB7UHMfAaf-3ThAd_UNSNu15dr5Q=w151-h200" width="151" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Lagash spearmen <br />Stele of vultures</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;">It was related to the sharing of the fertile plain Gu-Edin
that lay between the two cities. The powerful king of Kish first mediated in
this dispute (and erected a stele to mark the event). According to him, Umma
was using land that belonged to Ninĝirsu, the patron God of Girsu/Lagash and he
suggested Umma pay yearly rent for any of this land that it used. <o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Umma was unhappy with this. The rent was rarely paid, and about a hundred years later Umma attacked
Lagash (around 2450 BC). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Lagash routed the forces of Umma in one of the first known uses of the phalanx
formation. It was still a relatively small affair by more modern standards as
the cities were only<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>25 miles apart.<br /></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Still, for Umma to lose 3,600 of its citizen/soldiers killed or captured was an unbelievable catastrophe for that time. It was enough for the city to revolt against its énsi’ and murder him. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">At the conclusion, Lagash’s énsi Ean-natum made Umma pay tribute and celebrated by erecting the famous ‘Stele of the Vultures’. This was an intricately carved limestone monument telling
the story, including the role of the gods and showing vultures feasting on Umma’s dead soldiers. Sadly only fragments survived, preserved in the
Louvre.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Eannatum didn't stop there, he conquered Ur and the Uri province, calling himself the king of Kish. He campaigned in Elam, destroying several cities including Susa, and forced Mari to pay him tribute. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The last part of the 'Early dynastic ' period was characterised by would be emperors, great battles and destruction. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It continued into the next period, the Akkadian Empire, where the Akkadian rulers from the north of Sumer used brutal military suppression to rule.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">More on this in a minute (and in the next blog) but the point is, we must challenge the supposition that the Sumerian City states were constantly at war throughout <i>most</i> of their long history. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It seems, (apart from the second half of the EDP and Akkadian times), the reverse was true.</span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">How might the Sumerians have avoided destructive conflicts?<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumerians could not have survived in that hostile land if
they did not learn to co-operate and share at all levels. It had to start that
way from the beginning. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Co-operation and a rules based order was steeped in the Sumerian DNA.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The task of
building and maintaining the complex system of canals against erosion and
silting made it imperative. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Historians may find it hard to credit, but how they did this is amazing. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Hierarchy of cities<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">How could they manage this without a central authority?<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The government of Sumer over millennia was centred on
their temples. Religion, not political power was the glue that united the deeply religious Sumerians.</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEji12sxcoEhW4emz-536Xg3f4i1lO7Br88_fxN-2EqW1VgXhOWxrm2Mh_ZKnwKkT7qZZLaBi6sWnJadf3RMthRV08G_HUHHf2rMLzBC1NgAxnTFnLKQoHrmF0CLa-kK45N2Z0ufhdtZq7NmzHI5Bqo6oFnxI9WfuEhJhZNQAtZAGmS68GSF04zQ4XEfcA=s390" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="390" data-original-width="222" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEji12sxcoEhW4emz-536Xg3f4i1lO7Br88_fxN-2EqW1VgXhOWxrm2Mh_ZKnwKkT7qZZLaBi6sWnJadf3RMthRV08G_HUHHf2rMLzBC1NgAxnTFnLKQoHrmF0CLa-kK45N2Z0ufhdtZq7NmzHI5Bqo6oFnxI9WfuEhJhZNQAtZAGmS68GSF04zQ4XEfcA=s320" width="182" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: arial;">from Osama Amin</span></i></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;">The leadership became slowly more secularised throughout the later 'Early Dynastic period' but the leader of each city was still seen as a personal representation of the city’s resident God.<br /><o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">According to the ‘Sumerian Kings list’, there was usually
a single city (most often Uruk) that held hegemony (more or less) over all of
Summer even<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>before the Great Flood. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The term ‘lugal’ (‘big man’) may have had an earlier
meaning, but it came to mean<i> the</i> (or a) dominant ruler (on the occasions that there was more than one).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The leading one was invested in a ceremony in
Nippur, the sacred city, at the temple of Sumer’s prime God (Enlil). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Exactly how a senior lugal was chosen is not clear. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">If a senior city lost a battle with another large city, it
was said that the ‘kingship’ was ‘carried off’ by the victor to their city.
Presumably this was a sign they had lost favour of the Gods, but this didn’t
seem to be the main mechanism, at least not until the time of later troubles. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The lugal did not need to conquer all the cities of Sumer to
gain hegemony, most often he didn’t have to conquer <i>any at all</i>. There must have been some other mechanism of gaining consensus amongst the cities and temples.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> Hegemony would tend to
remain in one city (or at least one dynasty) with the agreement of religious and other leaders. The
Sumerians saw this as the natural order of things (for them such a lugal was
chosen by a group of the Gods) .</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was a very prestigious position, and likely involved
some tribute. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There would be a number of local duties such as
maintaining the city and its temples. Any great city and its lugal or ensi
would also have lesser cities and towns under his direct control. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He
also had to mediate in disputes, dispense justice (and prevent conflict) sometimes involving
cities <i>outside his direct</i> control.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">If there was a period where one city did not have hegemony
over all of Sumer, there were still a small number of strong cities (or
religious centres) with a lugal that managed to exert considerable prestige in
resolving disputes and preventing war. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The leadership within each city was predominantly
hereditary, though the populous could chose another leader if one was
unsuitable. A lugal might appoint an ‘ensi’ (governor) to a subordinate city
(especially if that city had became subordinate after losing a battle). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was a system that served the Sumerians well until late
into what we call the ‘Early Dynastic Period'<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Theocracy<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">From earliest times, life in a Sumerian city was centred
around the temple complex. Records and the all important storage and management
of grain and other goods was under the control of priests and priestesses. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As explained,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>lugals
(‘kings’) in dominant cities and ensi (‘lords’) in lesser cities began as
priest/rulers and only slowly became secularised. They were expected to follow
the example of the God Enlil and be supremely just and intolerant of evil. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Sacred Wisdom <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">When Enki created humans to serve the Gods, he passed down
certain sacred wisdom. The custodians were the powerful religious hierarchy
which spoke with the authority of the Gods. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t now know its content, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>but it is a large part of how the Sumerians
maintained their civilisation in peace and order. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Cities were sacred<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was sacrilegious to sack a<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Sumerian) city. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It, the surrounding land, and its people, were literally owned
by its patron God/Goddess. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">While there was some private ownership, to some extent the economy was centralised around the temple complex. As farmers paid rent for their land in grain or labour. Commonly owned grain and goods were distributed to the city workers and the needy.</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">While the Gods lived in their own wonderous realms and
sacred gardens, they were also believed to also live within their temple complex,
which was their home on earth. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Votive statues were
their physical embodiment . <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Everyday, a feast and other gifts were laid out before their
major idol (it was later shared amongst the priests and priestess that dressed
the God and cared for his/her house). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">These same Gods were venerated throughout Sumer, they were
not just limited to one city, though there was sometimes local variations. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">If this veneration was not enough to stop
Sumerians damaging a God’s property, the Gods were well capable of bringing grave
misfortune to anyone who offended them.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Armies of the time were not suited to sieges<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumerians were not ones to leave anything to chance with barbarian
raids from the desert and Zagros hills and mountains, the occasional attack by neighbours
(especially Elam). There might have been local conflict though we haven't any direct evidence of this. Anyway, most larger
cities were protected by walls with towers and had water-filled moats and the armies of the time were not well suited to
siege warfare. <b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Military Tactics of the Sumerians<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Victories and defeats were recorded on monumental stones
(plural stêlai) and towards the end of the EDP and the art and burial goods became increasingly militaristic. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As a result, we have a good idea of the weapons available,
but not the tactics used. How they changed over time is discussed in the next blog.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Most soldiers were conscripts and had to supply their own
weapons. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Metal (bronze age) armour was uncommon<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The core of the Sumerian armies were citizen/soldiers with
protective cloaks, spears and shields (presumably wicker, a bit like later Persian shields). They were armed with spears
and the Sumerians seemed to have invented the use of the phalanx by the middle of this period. The spearmen were supported by
javelin throwers and bowmen . <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They had their own units of soldiers, one of which was a ‘<i>Nu-Banda’</i>
(containing 60-100 men). They seemed to have battle standards (carried on
poles) in some ways similar to the later Roman ones.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The technology to produce bronze swords only appeared in
the Agean and South-eastern Europe around 1700 BC.so they were not available.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> The Sumerians had a range of
other personal weapons beyond the spears and bows and these included slingshots, battle axes, maces, and
knives. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">With typical understated Mesopotamian humour, light
skirmishers were called <i>Nim</i> which meant ‘flies’ and generals were called
‘Sagi-mah’ (‘cup-bearers’).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There was no cavalry.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They had chariots by 2450 BC. but these were little more than battle wagons and best for transport of VIPs into battle except for a brief period that is discussed in the next blog. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There would be sappers and scaling ladders but, as it has
been throughout most of history, capturing a city most often involved a siege, and this wasn’t very practical with citizen-soldiers. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Farmers were most easily available after planting and
before harvest. Other citizens would have their own work to attend to. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Summer temperatures were blisteringly hot in Sumer and winters could be cool.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The landscape
outside the canal systems was largely desert, with large areas of brackish
swamp near the rivers.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">So there was a limited fighting season and limits to where
wars could be fought, or armies could be mobilised.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Most battles occurred outside the city walls and usually
ended with the loser agreeing to pay tribute in grain (and forced labour) and to
recognise the dominance of the victorious city. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Things change <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the just
over six hundred years that marked the ‘Early Dynastic Period’ <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>lugals and ensis grew in wealth and secular
power, though they continued to be seen as the representative of their city’s
patron God or Goddess.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Administrative buildings began to be grander, and palaces for the 'secular' leader were built. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Graves for these leaders became grander and filled with richer and richer
grave goods. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Towards the end of this period, Sumer became more militaristic. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Conflict between city states increased, grave goods showed more weapons and armour.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Art, as mentioned, began to increasingly portray warfare as opposed to the common themes of earlier times. </span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhe5AMGr26Y-eM0ofp_D9d94Hod4Mu2dNWiTSF4VmSZifyOVoKvKcSDlJkuqbTqh3JB5SIUh-7lND-nqZGnZBJw3NyEDDZxLC0I7DJ4Y2Sj2lesd_VMvVcDoCPo9FRvYg6SAHSXsIFb_3EdUOAyjp3SjL6u0d-21hKtjP2S8mtaKYolwslx7mXhrYeoeA=s6632" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="6632" data-original-width="2824" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhe5AMGr26Y-eM0ofp_D9d94Hod4Mu2dNWiTSF4VmSZifyOVoKvKcSDlJkuqbTqh3JB5SIUh-7lND-nqZGnZBJw3NyEDDZxLC0I7DJ4Y2Sj2lesd_VMvVcDoCPo9FRvYg6SAHSXsIFb_3EdUOAyjp3SjL6u0d-21hKtjP2S8mtaKYolwslx7mXhrYeoeA=s320" width="136" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: arial;">Warka vase, approx. 3000 <br />BC, from a gentler time</span></i></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;"><br />Lugals and Ensis had <i>Shub-Lugal </i>or household troops and the city guard which would be professional soldiers, better equipped and trained. </span><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">The number of professional soldiers began to increase in the late Early dynastic period leading up to Sargon, the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire, who had a standing army of 5,400 men. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">It was an appreciable force in those days and a major advantage against a citizens-army but, of course, he had the cost of maintaining it..</span><div><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Towards the end of the Early Dynastic period, military conflict began to increasingly be the way to establishing dominance between cities and sometimes hegemony over all Sumer.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">And it was only going to get worse. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><b style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Three other Sumerian Empire builders, and increasing violence.</span></b></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We usually<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>give Sargon of Akkad the credit for establishing the world’s first Empire, but we know he was preceded by others.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Once again the exact events and time periods are a little uncertain. We already mentioned <b>Ean-natum</b> mid-way through the EDP and there were three others that followed him.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was a very different time.</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Greedy lugals struggled for ascendancy, using force to
impose their will. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Kish (with help from nearby Opis) had been campaigning in
the south to gain hegemony and tribute. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Early in the EDP Kish had hegemony and it remained a respected city for some time even as it lost power for a time. As Sumer became more violent, the relationship between the southern Sumerians and their greatest racial minority in the north was beginning to sour. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> We don’t know what damage they did down
there, but the north-eastern border city of Hamazi (which was usually peaceful) took the opportunity to attack Kish and seize the kingship.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Hamazi was a trading city, flying somewhere under
the radar, and described as ‘many-tongued’ indicating a mix of languages. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Now a second northern city was using violence to claim the
kingship over all Sumer, and expecting the other cities (that weren’t involved)
to simply concede and send them tribute and follow orders.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>En </b>(meaning lord)<b> shag-kush-ana </b></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">was the ruler of<b> </b>both Uruk and Ur, a very powerful position at the time, and he had had enough.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He sent a large punitive force into the Uri region<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(around 2431 BC) to punish these northerly
upstarts. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">What followed was incredible. He totally destroyed Kish, Opis and Ashak and maybe Akkad
to the north, capturing or killing their kings. He expelled all the people of Hamazi from the regions they had occupied and took the fight to their city.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The destruction of several cities indicated more effective siege techniques and less worry about the city's resident Gods. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The extra-ordinary level of violence he used is confirmed
by a destruction <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>layer in Kish. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He returned home via Nippur to leave considerable booty
dedicated to Enlil and exquisitely carved and decorated stone vases celebrating and describing his
exploits.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He took the title <i>en ki-en-gi lugal kalam </i>meaning<i>
</i>‘lord of Sumer and king of all the land’. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t know if he was an Empire Builder. It was a
punitive raid, but he certainly showed them who was boss, and used force to claim
the kingship over all Sumer. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He was also said to attack Adab later, we don’t know how
that went, but some time after his death Adab was said to seize the kingship from
Ur.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lugal Anne- Mundu of Adab</b></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">was that city’s
greatest king and was the one who took the kingship (hegemony) from Ur.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He was definitely the real deal as far as being an empire
builder.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He subjugated the ‘four quarters of the world’ i.e. Elam,
all the tribes of the Zagros mountains, northern Mesopotamia and Lebanon and
forcing them to send him tribute. Thing like slaves, timber, metal, stone and maybe
lapis lazuli (mainly imported from Afghanistan) that was always in demand in Sumer.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">On his celebratory vase(s) (placed in Nippur) it was claimed that
he managed to introduce peace, contentment and prosperity to all he
conquered.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">His empire didn’t survive him either. Adab was defeated by
the Semitic city of Mari (northern Mesopotamia) who ‘carried off the kingship’
but couldn’t hold it. This allowed the other powerful cities of southern Sumer to
regain their independence and begin jockeying for supremacy.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Lugal-Zage-Si</span></b></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">emerged from this struggle. He began
as the ensi of Umma but began conquering his neighbours until he got control of Uruk. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">He didn’t <i>just</i> use this powerful position to exact
revenge on Lagash (for the humiliation of a century before). He continued to spread Uruk’s hegemony across
south and north until he was said to have fifty governors under his control.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Then he raided his neighbours as far as the Mediterranean.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">One of the cities that resisted his power was long
suffering Kish, which he conquered.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Unfortunately for him the King of Kish’s general
(‘cup-bearer’, also governor of nearby Akkad) happened to be a man
called Sargon. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sargon regained Kish and then came south to Uruk . He captured
Lugal-Zage-Si in battle and proceeded to establish the Empire that bears the
name of his city.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Two seem to avoid punishment by the Gods, one doesn't<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The first two<b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b>conquerors
seemed to avoid punishment by the Gods.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Kish had two powerful divine protectors. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The first was Zababa, a
war God with monstrous strength that gained him the epithet “crusher of
stones”. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">His name (like Inanna) suggests that he may have belonged to the people that preceded
both the Sumerians and the Semitic people (the Proto-Euphrateans, likely the late Neolithic <em><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-style: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Samara culture or its successors</span></em>). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The city’s second protector was his (then) spouse, Ishtar
(the Semitic version of Inanna). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumerians (like the Greeks) allowed their Gods and
Goddesses to exhibit slightly different aspects in different regions, and Ishtar was even more warlike than the
Sumerian version.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Anyway, it was a pair no mortal king would want to face
but En-shakushanna didn’t seem to care, and he didn’t stop with Kish, going on to attack the cities of other Gods.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerian Kings list gives him a (likely inflated) 50
years of reign. Unless he spent the whole time in a state of abject misery, he didn't seem to have been punished. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">On his celebratory vase there is a list of powerful Gods that backed
him and it claims<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>he was commanded to
punish the north “... when the gods commanded ... he sacked Kish ...”.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It seemed that the powerful Gods of Sumer accepted his mission to punish the north. </span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">And , he was safe from human retribution as well. Any people who
survived his attack (and hadn’t been enslaved) were too busy trying to rebuild
and were too terrified to take him on again.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">That was likely his intention. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t know how destructive <b>Lugal- Anne- Mundu</b>’s
conquests were. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">According to him (or his celebratory vase at least) his
rule brought peace, happiness and prosperity to all he ruled. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Maybe it did. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Maybe everyone and their Gods were too busy being happy
having him for a ruler, enjoying the peace and prosperity he brought. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The
Sumerian king’s list (which is notoriously unreliable) has him ruling for 90
years. Again, his empire seemingly didn’t survive his death.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Lugal-Zaggesi </b>set out very differently and had a very
different fate. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">His celebratory vase<b> </b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>also gives a long list of the Gods that backed
him and (like Lugal Anne- Mundu) claims that the lands ‘rejoiced’ under his rule, as
unlikely as this sounds. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The people of Girsu/Lagash certainly had a different opinion of him.
According to the lament for the fall of Lagash (and its related holy city,
Girsu). “The man of Umma ... committed a sin against Ningirsu. ... Offence
there was none in Urukagina, king of Girsu.”<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">So , it was a destructive raid but, unlike Enshakushanna’s
attack, it was unprovoked.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><cite><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></cite></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Nirgirsu, the local version of Ninurta at Girsu, was the
very ancient Sumerian God of farming, healing (which included exorcism of demons),
and the law. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As Sumer became progressively more violent he also became a God of
war, just in time to deal with Lugal-Zaggesi. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In a little over a decade after his conquests, Lugal-Zaggesi
found himself in a cage with a collar around his neck, being hit over the head
with a club (according to one carving) as he <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>was dragged to Enlil’s temple in Nippur to be
humiliated. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The same Enlil he claimed he was serving. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was likely not what he
expected when he first set out.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></p><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; overflow: visible; padding: 0px;"><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">I hope you have enjoyed this third blog on the Incredible Sumerians. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Part 4, the Brutal Akkadian Empire and the Curse of Aggad,</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">I also write Epic Fantasy set in exotic locations and ancient times</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;">Please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">My first book : 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></span></p><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /></span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></span></div></div></h1></div></div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-58916619039768628182021-12-02T22:29:00.090-08:002023-05-12T16:48:12.181-07:00The incredible Sumerians Part 2 : A. The First Cities, the Great Flood and much more<br /><div style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Incredible Sumerians, part 2 </span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Uruk Period, the first cities, and the Great Flood</span></div>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The second period of Sumerian history is called the Uruk
Period<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(4100–2900 BC) and is marked by
the emergence of the world’s first cities. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Part A <o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Characteristics
of a ‘City’ and ‘Civilisation’<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The term ‘civilisation’ simply comes from the Roman word
for city, but even in Roman times 'being ‘civil’ acquired a value
judgment (of being a good Roman citizen). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgunlkGRszjpfCWV4qT9CBTxXxTH5NdARx5E2nXqVuOQLAkYJ8yPkN9Bwc09q4w8efKlehlzEdyD39ILvvQJer2zF5hWsTswim3vJclQco_8l_dhR0MoAaVM8FYydjgYR3uRcHb8geNr_pgogB77fZ-_0CJEX2GDntisSE-4h-9t1RiQQtHC81Dil0s8g=s533" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="232" data-original-width="533" height="139" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgunlkGRszjpfCWV4qT9CBTxXxTH5NdARx5E2nXqVuOQLAkYJ8yPkN9Bwc09q4w8efKlehlzEdyD39ILvvQJer2zF5hWsTswim3vJclQco_8l_dhR0MoAaVM8FYydjgYR3uRcHb8geNr_pgogB77fZ-_0CJEX2GDntisSE-4h-9t1RiQQtHC81Dil0s8g=s320" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Restored Ziggurat of Ur</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;"><br />In sixteenth century France (in a world on the edge of the 'Age of Enlightenment') ‘being civilised’ acquired other value judgments : indicating sophistication, good manners, rationality, enlightenment and ‘superior’
behaviour (as contrasted with a more ‘primitive' society).</span><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This can cause some confusion, but remember, for the noun (especially in Archaeology, anthropology and related disciplines) pare back the value judgments: it simply refers to a culture that has built cities. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It may not sound dramatic as the more nuanced adverb, but cities and
urbanisation are a quantum leap forward in social organisation.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But what defines a city (in the ancient world) rather than a large agricultural community? <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Childe, in the 1936 book (and later) defined a list of
characteristics which included size and population density, sophistication,
specialised workforce, taxation, monumental building, ruling class, symbolic
representation, science, sophistication and organisation beyond kinship.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Characteristics
of Urbanisation<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">To simplify somewhat: a city (urbanisation) is characterised
by a large specialised central settlement inside of which much of populace is not directly involved
in producing food. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It requires and is characterised by several things: <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>1. A significant, available, food surplus</b>.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Each city has to be closely connected to agricultural
towns, farms, fishing villages and herding camps that supply food and other
resources to the city, in exchange for finished goods and services. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumer, at
its height, was the most agriculturally productive region in the world, serviced
by complex irrigation and transport canals and it supported previously
unheard of population density. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">2. Stratified
society.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="text-align: left;">In the city there is a full-time bureaucracy, military, a
stratified society and complex industry. </span><span style="text-align: left;">The specialisation allows economies of
scale and more rapid advances in knowledge.</span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">3. Transport<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Transport aids the free flow of goods and services. Sumer
was well serviced by canal transport. Uruk had such an extensive network of canals it has been called the ‘Venice in the desert’.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Since the Ubaid times Sumerians had oxen carts. The donkey was a very welcome addition, arriving in the middle of the Uruk period.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p> <b>4.</b> </o:p><b style="text-align: center;">Currency and sophisticated
trade.</b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sophisticated trade cannot occur without some form of <b>currency</b>. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">From Palaeolithic times humankind used <b>commodities </b>as the first currencies.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This is sometimes confused with barter but here, individuals
(who are not traders) accept a well recognised commodity which has an understood value as a means of exchange. And they are prepared to do so in quantities beyond what they need for personal
consumption.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Cattle or other livestock was currency for expensive items such as a (noblewoman’s) bride price, or to build a defensive tower across a range of cultures. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Flint,
obsidian, metal, beads, shell -jewelry, axe heads, salt and rum have all been
used at various times throughout human history. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Metal had to be imported into Sumer and didn’t come into
its own until a later period. The predominant commodity used during the Uruk era for
large purchases was grain.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Other commodities were used for smaller purchases. (In
a later period, there is even the record of payment to a labourer in beer.) <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">5. Records and
accounting<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">How can grain be used as a currency? Did the Sumerians
carry bushels of grain around to pay labourers? </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">If not, how did they make payments? The answer (at least for
significant purchases) was <b>the token system.</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Tokens arose during the very beginning of the Neolithic period,
paralleling the cultivation of grain and communal storage. If a landowner was
to deposit his surplus of grain in a community warehouse, he would definitely want some record of what was his! </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The first examples of this in Northern Mesopotamia date
back to 9,000 BC in the earliest Neolithic times.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Stamp seals (carved in stone to be pressed into wet clay) were invented soon after, as a type of
official signature. This technology was brought to Sumer with the first Neolithic farmers and irrigators.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">During the Uruk period (5 millennia later) tokens and
seals continued to evolve into a complex accounting system. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There was never any
need to lug bulk grain or other commodities around. Any large transfer of
ownership was achieved by the token system, a bit like transfers recorded within a bank, but in this case it was administered through the community storehouse under the control of the priestly class.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The centre of the community at that time was the temple. The leader of each city-state and its
surrounding lands and towns was a king/priest. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Priests and their acolytes were not only responsible for religion and holy ceremonies they were in charge of higher learning, taxation, records, administration and running the communal
granary.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The increasing use of symbols<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Over time, different tokens were used until they covered something like
sixteen important commodities. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">(Counting) tokens to aid calculations were then introduced
. A small cone denoted 1, a ball was 10, and a large clay cone was 60.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Special round clay containers (bulla) were designed (like
a lock box at a bank) to preserve a collection of tokens held inside. They
could only be opened once (to prevent tampering). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As these containers had a record of the contents and
personal seals on the outside, it led to simple clay tablets being used, instead, for
simpler records.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj9Shqd7akYBAxPHszZEpwYMz45Y9oEYaleGN95gHszNQOftoXeBba1AgwFCeR4RjcGbEbbQrWMGBDzKTxRecIcZOT21IGevmITQvu5L9H9HtHYlBX7ixYSc5Hr3mInmSWXBKq6CTUnRpNd3mTt3cxJu6bADI88FnLdFMIVExh5I3HBEMuzC6ifZ_FaAg=s2000" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1100" data-original-width="2000" height="176" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj9Shqd7akYBAxPHszZEpwYMz45Y9oEYaleGN95gHszNQOftoXeBba1AgwFCeR4RjcGbEbbQrWMGBDzKTxRecIcZOT21IGevmITQvu5L9H9HtHYlBX7ixYSc5Hr3mInmSWXBKq6CTUnRpNd3mTt3cxJu6bADI88FnLdFMIVExh5I3HBEMuzC6ifZ_FaAg=s320" width="320" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;">To improve security and to show the status of prominent
dignitaries, , cylindrical seals were invented in place of simpler stamp seals.
These were definitely a work of art. They were only an inch high but elaborately
carved so they could be rolled onto wet clay to form an especially impressive signature.<o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Soon after, the Sumerians invented symbolic representation
of numbers (with the main base 60) to further <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>assist with accounting and their solar
calendar.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The whole system was becoming too cumbersome as society
and trade became more complex.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Pictograms, the world’s very first form of writing<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The need for Sumerians to represent more complex concepts led to the world's first true form of writing (pictorial writing) around 3500 B.C
. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Pictographs (picture words, and petroglyphs) in simpler
forms date to Paleolithic times. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiB6OsznTwwCgLUq6oayNqTIz-GAVXfnBOnzLFgFQ6E8U1OWxx0fdOpBqrOwPVzRfOvpZ9rfJcYaM_KQoZy12Jd1VN5BqfR7Q3zpQ8CHhRhVUxgdRguHbCRjtvNBVBwRAdFln6xB9UaxfItyNFbaa31dCCces9yKSF6qv_KJVpBLH2XrBNDXdAVk4Twvw=s220" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="198" data-original-width="220" height="198" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiB6OsznTwwCgLUq6oayNqTIz-GAVXfnBOnzLFgFQ6E8U1OWxx0fdOpBqrOwPVzRfOvpZ9rfJcYaM_KQoZy12Jd1VN5BqfR7Q3zpQ8CHhRhVUxgdRguHbCRjtvNBVBwRAdFln6xB9UaxfItyNFbaa31dCCces9yKSF6qv_KJVpBLH2XrBNDXdAVk4Twvw" width="220" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;">This first form of Sumerian <b>writing</b> seemed to grow out of
the token system and was logographic (each symbol represented a word (or
morpheme). <o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sometimes a ‘determinative’ was added (a symbol which
specified semantic class) which meant the same symbol could be used for a range
of items or concepts.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Drawing curves on clay is difficult, and the Sumerians
soon began experimented with a range of writing systems (often concurrently and
often combined). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As Sumerian writing predated Egyptian writing and the
Egyptians did not show this phase of experimentation, it is generally accepted
that it was the Sumerian writing that inspired Egyptian hieroglyphics.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Cuneiform, one
of the world’s Great writing systems<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">‘Cuneiform’ writing emerged around 3400 BC. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Its name means ‘wedge shaped’ and it involved a wedge
shaped stylus, elimination of curves and the use of highly stylised symbols.
The writing also became from left to right (not top to bottom as before). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Cuneiform writing became amongst the greatest writing
systems in antiquity. It lasted through to 100 AD. with many adaptations. It was eventually used for writing fifteen languages. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Why was cuneiform so successful, apart from its specific adaptation
to clay tablets?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It became phonetic, or at least partly so. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumerian was mostly monosyllabic. If you ignore the
accents, a lot of words are spelt the same way (they are homonyms). So the Sumerian <em><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">šu</span></em>
(“hand”) could stand in for a lot of similar sounding words. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Also (in keeping with pictographs) a symbol could stand in
for a series of related but different-sounding words “sun,” “day,” “bright” further reducing the number of symbols needed. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Semantic ‘determinatives’ continued to be used to keep the
number of symbols within reasonable bounds, and pictographs continued to be used
for names. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgDXFym3BRaZz6lPxdMbkXEwVOo2tsJXiNr0_-LdOHdHOpOLUafsRU41CXxjhHLbw6Ckxdmcm9g38JMobWyq9nQjcFjXVBlvU-cC1PUFAz2dfY7zlLBer4b7TyIHp0j27o_WGakO7k587BLBi0pu2S5schLis_fXiECWaIoAY7IxniW-c09PerybJnKcg=s220" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="208" data-original-width="220" height="208" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgDXFym3BRaZz6lPxdMbkXEwVOo2tsJXiNr0_-LdOHdHOpOLUafsRU41CXxjhHLbw6Ckxdmcm9g38JMobWyq9nQjcFjXVBlvU-cC1PUFAz2dfY7zlLBer4b7TyIHp0j27o_WGakO7k587BLBi0pu2S5schLis_fXiECWaIoAY7IxniW-c09PerybJnKcg" width="220" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Contract for the sale of a field and a house</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;">But the great problem for cuneiform writing is its complexity. There was
eventually <span class="hgkelc"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">700 different symbols and their shape and
meaning could vary over time and place.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span><o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was finally displaced by <b>alphabets</b> (or at least the consonant-only 'alphabets', like Phoenician writing, that we call </span><span style="font-family: arial;">‘abjads’</span><span style="font-family: arial;"> </span><span style="font-family: arial;">).</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">These ‘alphabets’ were first invented by a group of Semitic
workers and traders<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>living in Egyptian- occupied lands of the Sinai and south Canaan around 2,000 BC. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Vowels were later added to reduce ambiguities.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Alphabets were originally designed for writing on papyrus
and parchment (with ink). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">When they are carved (e.g. wood or stone) with ancient
technology, the characters have to have a more angular shape (which incidentally is one of
the reasons runes were developed around 150 AD by the Norse and Germanic people) .</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Papyrus was easier to use than clay tablets but, perhaps almost as importantly, alphabets were so much simpler
to learn and use.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There were attempts to simplify cuneiform writing. The
best was by the clever Persians during the Achaemenid Empire (550 BC–330 BC). They used a cuneiform alphabet with 36 phonetic characters (including vowels) and 8
logograms. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But by this time the use of cuneiform writing was passing and the Old Persian characters were eventually abandoned<strong><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">.</span></strong><b>
<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Even though writing emerged in the late Uruk period, we
have scant written records from this time. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The whole period is sometimes called the ‘proto-literary’ period
because it was characterised more by the increasing use of symbols that led to the emergence of writing.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Tokens would become almost obsolete. C<span>ontracts, vouchers, payrolls,
accounts</span> and private ownership was all recorded on clay tablets. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Some of
these were intended as temporary records, but there are something like tens of
thousands of Sumerian and other tablets in the back rooms of museums around the
world, some not yet not fully translated. It is only a fraction compared to what has been lost.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>First
urbanisation</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Most will accept that world's first urbanisation was achieved early
in the Uruk period (4100–2900 BC). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">For reasons already explained, archaeology is difficult in
Sumer. Wood and stone were in short supply and most construction was mudbrick.
There was a tendency to recycle and build on top of older layers. The oldest
ruins ended up deep under layers of silt and overlain by more recent, but still
important, archaeological remains.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In what became one of the most important city in much later times, Babylon, archeology is further hampered by its high water table.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">But wasn’t there
cities in the Neolithic period?<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">No. Some people have been tempted to claim certain Neolithic
settlements as the world’s first cities. One example is <b>Çatalhöyük</b> in Turkey,
but it never achieved urbanisation.</span></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhMRvsTrvaFkOCDVIouHeTLqWrpNNCSqExBTW5MY_hOjyEN5OA_UR7-kdUKYnFAb985FaNqkpH8bQzJhRX5HeJHUGfN13ERAzJA0Sj6em3mnoSvAD3HhRnDiyDMPJBnW3dVJUoQrhc8IPT88BBpzQmNW0PlpSbXiXK5HGKdZvVs-0N790nMfnb4bFktWg=s1024" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="681" data-original-width="1024" height="133" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhMRvsTrvaFkOCDVIouHeTLqWrpNNCSqExBTW5MY_hOjyEN5OA_UR7-kdUKYnFAb985FaNqkpH8bQzJhRX5HeJHUGfN13ERAzJA0Sj6em3mnoSvAD3HhRnDiyDMPJBnW3dVJUoQrhc8IPT88BBpzQmNW0PlpSbXiXK5HGKdZvVs-0N790nMfnb4bFktWg=w200-h133" width="200" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: left;">Çatalhöyük</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Jericho.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Jericho has also been suggested as the world’s first city or 'the world's oldest continually occupied settlement'. Unfortunately it is neither.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgQFBbsvB8vK9DaQC4gz3_FkFE5a9pQlEKxT84kknbIKW6sncVkse-Nv_-SQLE3AzgMuyw5FzBXON1mUHqg6II1aR-3fJG3WLwqnoX-nu0wF3p0XA_QT3WwJ-3FKlWA_QNytizeBtmaGYIiW2nSR-7rKAc3tSGtOPnl9sHnvyUh6N0JM2EpwntpmEAIwQ=s298" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="298" data-original-width="177" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgQFBbsvB8vK9DaQC4gz3_FkFE5a9pQlEKxT84kknbIKW6sncVkse-Nv_-SQLE3AzgMuyw5FzBXON1mUHqg6II1aR-3fJG3WLwqnoX-nu0wF3p0XA_QT3WwJ-3FKlWA_QNytizeBtmaGYIiW2nSR-7rKAc3tSGtOPnl9sHnvyUh6N0JM2EpwntpmEAIwQ=w119-h200" width="119" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;">It was an impressive settlement, dating back to the dawn of
the Neolithic period but did not reach urbanisation until the early Bronze Age
(maybe by 2600 BC.) when the Eastern Mediterranean coast and surrounding lands were coming into their own with the rise in trade with Egypt. <o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Jericho has several periods when it was abandoned, and so it fails the test for the
world’s longest continuously occupied settlement as well. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">For instance, it was completely destroyed maybe in the
17th or 16th centuries BC. (</span><span style="font-family: arial;">Likely by the Egyptians). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Ahmose I defeated the Canaanite ‘Hyksos’ (foreign rulers of northern Egypt) around 1550 BC. and then campaigned as far as Byblos in Lebanon. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A
reasonable assumption is that he expelled many Canaanites from Egypt (or they fled
before his armies), perhaps inspiring the Biblical story of the Exodus.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A small unwalled settlement was rebuilt there in the 15th
century BC but it was soon abandoned and Jericho is said to have been empty till the 10th/9th centuries BC. despite historically inaccurate claims that the Israelites under Joshua sacked it (probably in the mid-late 13th century BC). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Was Eridu the
world’s first city, then?<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In Sumerian tradition the old port city of <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eridu was Sumer’s (and hence the world’s)
first city. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjDzqKbXAb5IC2dv_dwv5cgaLqm3i7G9qikrLDkt_fvIE6lyYrui4HCs_VHoKnYlOz8rVRKARr9uFJg32ESBVZVMOppSSekTMMzHHU4lvG4y9W9WUULLaxTqv8aPPFxHv7TybTFqsMBQ4aq-oSGE1iZbLMCku_gbcrjhCJ9jH4MZhFA0_mQv7V2y4UQrQ=s225" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="169" data-original-width="225" height="169" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjDzqKbXAb5IC2dv_dwv5cgaLqm3i7G9qikrLDkt_fvIE6lyYrui4HCs_VHoKnYlOz8rVRKARr9uFJg32ESBVZVMOppSSekTMMzHHU4lvG4y9W9WUULLaxTqv8aPPFxHv7TybTFqsMBQ4aq-oSGE1iZbLMCku_gbcrjhCJ9jH4MZhFA0_mQv7V2y4UQrQ" width="225" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;">It was certainly one of the oldest Sumerian settlement of
any substance, being established by famer-settlers in 5,400 BC and was a major
settlement in the Ubaid period. <o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was very well favoured, being well suited for irrigation, near the sea for food and trading, handy to marshes (for fish, birds and other resources) and close to herding activity. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Unfortunately for Eridu, the sea later marched (a considerable distance) south under the influence of silting and falling sea levels (in the first thousand years), all made worse by the shallow fall of the land. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The low basin where it was situated was especially prone to flooding and Eridu's fortunes
fluctuated considerably. It was abandoned at times, but estimates of when this was vary enormously.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">One gain from its growing distance to the sea was a massive
expansion of the nearby marshes which (during the flood season) formed a giant lake
the size of Galilea.</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj8gsuCXDEGHUty02YfRVWH3U2-sVZWLvfKaL0lzYbe6acSaxZX0X7FV3HKp31MmAwOWW6yrtg1lMVctHJNrrztbHf8wMsRmrthP7rj8atJhXx-0jJeUWMOT2ouUyVGSwLPGOjxlxst9ON11UnIP2asvgSOvXpXrK7Zl6V6YhM5vb2JBJxWfJnOSufUpw=s2048" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1397" data-original-width="2048" height="272" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj8gsuCXDEGHUty02YfRVWH3U2-sVZWLvfKaL0lzYbe6acSaxZX0X7FV3HKp31MmAwOWW6yrtg1lMVctHJNrrztbHf8wMsRmrthP7rj8atJhXx-0jJeUWMOT2ouUyVGSwLPGOjxlxst9ON11UnIP2asvgSOvXpXrK7Zl6V6YhM5vb2JBJxWfJnOSufUpw=w400-h272" width="400" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumer , with new coast line (Wiki)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Max Mallowan described Eridu as an 'unusually large city' of ‘not less than 4000 souls’ covering 8-10 ha (20-25 acres) during the Ubaid period. Kate Fielden alternatively suggested it reached this size <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘by 2900 BC’.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">These estimates are over a
thousand years apart ,showing just how murky our knowledge of this period is and how different estimates often contradict each other.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A more important question is, how a settlement of considerably less
than 10,000 be called a ‘city’?</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> It was not likely.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Uruk, the
favourite contender<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In Sumerian legends Inanna, the young (but mischievous)
patron Goddess of Uruk, challenged her father, Enki, to a drinking competition.
While he was drunk, she tricked him into giving her the important <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘<i>Me</i>s’ (the essence of civilisation) which
she took from Eridu to Uruk. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Mes’s form and characteristics were not specified,
though it had some sort of physical form because she was able to put it on display.
It was also sometimes called a (minor) God in its own right. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It included the knowledge, institutions, technology, laws
and culture (anything that the Sumerians thought made civilisation possible).</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It seems the Sumerians believed the main civilising force had
passed from Eridu, the important settlement of Ubaid times, to Uruk, the star of the Uruk period.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Uruk was long the most impressive of all Sumerian cities, establishing cultural hegemony over a vast region.</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEikOXlQD8FGKc9uzVBg-PbX3AYEXA6xG_AGRwvDX1xYcFSErU-Au1NkM5jQ3wUcbUsAWUweMtV93U-GODn3-ze9a16ebW0oGEwNZILK7PYpRc68hbIUQAqUks2svopZu0M1pNH_-Vgg5ykrkCry69pggawuE3nnQik9G5-TtXvvC1gw3NXuXnRV5ZY74g=s1024" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="607" data-original-width="1024" height="190" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEikOXlQD8FGKc9uzVBg-PbX3AYEXA6xG_AGRwvDX1xYcFSErU-Au1NkM5jQ3wUcbUsAWUweMtV93U-GODn3-ze9a16ebW0oGEwNZILK7PYpRc68hbIUQAqUks2svopZu0M1pNH_-Vgg5ykrkCry69pggawuE3nnQik9G5-TtXvvC1gw3NXuXnRV5ZY74g=s320" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">White temple and Ziggurat (wiki)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It began around 5,000 BC. and soon absorbed a neighbouring town, resulting in not one but two temple districts. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p>From 4000 BC the settlement had a massive ziggurat dedicated to Anu, the sky God. This went through 14 phases of construction.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This included, in the late Uruk period the erection of a great white temple on top, plastered with gypsum. </span><span style="font-family: arial;">This was 20 metres above the city and would have been able to be seen from a great distance. .</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The second temple district, <span class="mw-headline">Eanna (500 metres away) had more modern temples and monumental buildings. Between the two were busy workshops and residential districts.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Throughout the whole period, which bears its name, Uruk grew
rapidly. Unfortunately, the time periods are extremely imprecise with competing estimates but it seems
to have reached urbanisation sometime in the early Uruk period. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">By 3700 BC it
was said to have reached between 175–250 ac (70–100 ha). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was later than this, but still during this period, the culture of Uruk (and urbanisation) began to spread to other sites.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline" style="font-family: arial;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span class="mw-headline" style="font-family: arial;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgYlnF_AC4bqf3oEsb-H0MoabaLlLhov4tzVnD8YAevP4Zb-G1IvS80lggtp6pexxjKB-j9Kw6kujAarjz0FM7WUFWHYwGOq7U3IFn7PZlgc01DseEnMKiy8mi0ACAKJ7ZFyJk9FPeLz-Ha5RkCbnmiYxV2iOezDGmg6G4TLRfZV48m-vZQwGnQ6iyIjA=s266" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="263" data-original-width="266" height="263" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgYlnF_AC4bqf3oEsb-H0MoabaLlLhov4tzVnD8YAevP4Zb-G1IvS80lggtp6pexxjKB-j9Kw6kujAarjz0FM7WUFWHYwGOq7U3IFn7PZlgc01DseEnMKiy8mi0ACAKJ7ZFyJk9FPeLz-Ha5RkCbnmiYxV2iOezDGmg6G4TLRfZV48m-vZQwGnQ6iyIjA" width="266" /></a></span></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="mw-headline">Uruk eventually managed to expand its sphere of influence as far as </span>Upper
Mesopotamia, northern Syria, western Iran and south-eastern Anatolia. </span><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">The actual mechanism of this ‘Uruk Expansion’ is not fully
understood but it seemed to be a combination of military expansion and cultural
and trading dominance. </span><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The greater region and its surrounds was not exactly the one culture, there were regional difference and differences in language in places like Elam and Northern Mesopotamia.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">By the end of the period, Uruk had reached 40-50,000 citizens
with 80,000-90,000 in its surrounds. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Tell Brak, a
little known contender (as the world's first city)<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A team of American and British archaeologists surveying
Tel Brak in Syria, believe they have found the world’s first city, and it was in Syria (Upper
Mesopotamia) instead of Sumer. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They published (in 2011) the culmination of over thirty
years work and publications.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The original name of the city is <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>unknown but it was later called Nagar. It was
founded during the earlier northern Halaf culture. Situated on a river crossing between Anatolia, the Levant and Sothern Mesopotamia it became an important trading and manufacturing hub absorbing the earlier ‘northern Ubaid’ culture.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">During the Ubaid and Uruk period, its growth mirrored that
of Sumer and it became the largest city of Northern Mesopotamian at that time.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">At the start of the Uruk period Tell Brak was already 55
hectares. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was bigger than Nineveh, back then known as Ninua, not far from Mosul in northern Iraq. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Nineveh was destined to become the world's largest city around 700 BC but back then it came in second to </span><span style="font-family: arial;">Tell Brak </span><span style="font-family: arial;">at 'only' 40 hectares. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">By the end of the Uruk period 'Brak' had reached 130 hectares, making it a serious contender with Uruk as the world’s first city.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj4KJpg6nAUMb8x17x4xOcmUMSNpYJaQTJhZcrT0rc5DMb358qUZHOJzGwnS14cDZ1EvIrVkB-gJGQXOWuGudwFhIdY_tG5zdyBPoPmPTjZd5CM36_NiMJ3ZdiQe3v5ZvPt2WQtSxur48-AR7BE9mLNUKZ-FWeaWTChDIUSKs1EGMtfNgH34YS82Zn8Zg=s241" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="241" data-original-width="220" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEj4KJpg6nAUMb8x17x4xOcmUMSNpYJaQTJhZcrT0rc5DMb358qUZHOJzGwnS14cDZ1EvIrVkB-gJGQXOWuGudwFhIdY_tG5zdyBPoPmPTjZd5CM36_NiMJ3ZdiQe3v5ZvPt2WQtSxur48-AR7BE9mLNUKZ-FWeaWTChDIUSKs1EGMtfNgH34YS82Zn8Zg=w183-h200" width="183" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;">It had a sophisticated temple which was wood panelled
inside and a semi-colonnaded façade, the first of its kind. It is called the
‘eye’ temple for the particular alabaster and bone votive figures found inside thought
to be representing the local all- seeing Goddess. It had strong walls and the
presence of four mass graves suggest periods of warfare.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">In the late Uruk period Tel Brak had an Uruk enclave and considerable Uruk influence. </span></div><div><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Interesting this enclave was abandoned and levelled at the end of the Uruk period and the city suffered a significant contraction.</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A similar but smaller city, Hamoukar, to the east was also destroyed around 3500 BC after a siege. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The culprits are unknown but most suspect a military expedition from Uruk. Civilisation had obviously brought the wonderful benefits of siege-warfare, looting and slavery.</span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">And the winner
is?<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was in the early Uruk period that the world’s cities had begun to emerge.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sadly, due to the problems of excavation in Sumer, it is
impossible to decide if the first city was Uruk or Tell Brak. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It might be tempting to favour Uruk which continued to be the greatest city in Sumer for Millenia.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Whatever the answer, Sumer owed a great debt to the north that we have sometimes underestimated. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was where many of the innovations began that allowed the settlement of Sumer.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> <b>Part B</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sudden Collapse<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Around 3100 BC. just when Uruk was at the
height of its power, it and the cities of Southern Sumer faced some sort of sudden catastrophe. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Uruk’s influence collapsed, long distance trade in and out of Sumer
dwindled to a trickle <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">The Uruk culture ceased, only to be replaced by the inward looking <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jemdet Nasr Culture (</span></span>3100 to
2900 BC ). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The </span><span style="font-family: arial;">Jemdet Nasr Culture</span><span style="font-family: arial;"> had already been in the back water regions of Northern Sumer but now it extended its influence over the southern cities, even Uruk. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Settlements became less dense and hand painted pottery emerged, suggesting the end of cheaper mass production that was possible in Uruk times.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Exactly what happened politically during this period is
unclear but at the start of the next period (the early dynastic period 2900–2350 BC) hegemony had passed to the (northern) city of Kish which for a time controlled Uruk.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Kish was Akkadian (Semitic), part of the greatest minority group in Sumer. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Was it a Semitic invasion from the north? </span></b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">No, they were already there<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Archaeologists initially believed that the fall of Uruk was due
to migration of Semitic people into the northern regions.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A</span><span style="font-family: arial;">ncient DNA shows they were there likely from as early as Mesolithic times.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is harder to extract viable DNA from ancient samples in
a warm climate, but recent studies show that the ancient (Semitic) natives of the Levant were distinct from the ancient people of Zagros
(Iran) and Anatolia (Turkey). They were the three groups that would form the great Neolithic powerhouses.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgUfxf_Zs0LLry-3gka2nhLUlA8aFTgLYYrUegR3pfL0bExVUkvK8Z_F13h3zrJ-PzJaKgQAJmoWF1aAXGLtDTmYIOU8kSNwGNJygouAxi7EuhNq8tRJeYhwS3nI29uovwHo15JmY4gFUVTH6Tr20fU0lTT3Y_KsbFia_YTnHGr0cfUtLvnH4yUuUcnow=s297" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="297" data-original-width="273" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgUfxf_Zs0LLry-3gka2nhLUlA8aFTgLYYrUegR3pfL0bExVUkvK8Z_F13h3zrJ-PzJaKgQAJmoWF1aAXGLtDTmYIOU8kSNwGNJygouAxi7EuhNq8tRJeYhwS3nI29uovwHo15JmY4gFUVTH6Tr20fU0lTT3Y_KsbFia_YTnHGr0cfUtLvnH4yUuUcnow=w184-h200" width="184" /></span></a></div><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Those in the Levant had connections with people of Arabia and north western
Africa but had diverged from them by 13,000 BC or maybe even as
early as 22,000 BC . </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The bulk of the DNA for modern day Palestinian, Lebanese, Jordanians
and Syrians (speakers of Levantine Arabic) comes from this ancient group. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There has been the addition of other DNA over time (which is not too surprising in such a busy corridor for people movement).</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In other words, the ancestors of the ('Levantine') Semitic and related people arose in the Levant in Late Paleolithic times. They were part of the Mesolithic Natufian culture (beginning 13,000 BC). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was they, in turn, who were responsible for the beginning of Neolithic culture (10,000 BC). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"></p><div style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjI3P-uIX4HGqmmt-MgnnFSkMnG-lTz1ajcK7RZsiVYVSF2qE6YqoVbC7ZlcyI74hhgvxbK-wNUC5fuUd4oYXAsW3L58nm-EzZsFb_hcKwbspaMN7lPsvXYsz8OFT0d4BbloLzpDkv0POljP-RgYrP0qFMBmCvzHuihQbvtIkoGXkrpI8-a9j3vg_GIVA=s354" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="354" data-original-width="313" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjI3P-uIX4HGqmmt-MgnnFSkMnG-lTz1ajcK7RZsiVYVSF2qE6YqoVbC7ZlcyI74hhgvxbK-wNUC5fuUd4oYXAsW3L58nm-EzZsFb_hcKwbspaMN7lPsvXYsz8OFT0d4BbloLzpDkv0POljP-RgYrP0qFMBmCvzHuihQbvtIkoGXkrpI8-a9j3vg_GIVA=w177-h200" width="177" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br />By 7,500 BC Neolithic culture had spread decisively across
the whole fertile crescent including into what is now Syria, north of Sumer, giving rise to a number of Neolithic and then Copper Age settlements and cultures. </span><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">As soon as we can tell, the people north of Sumer were speaking </span><span style="font-family: arial;">Eastern Semitic, which included Akkadian.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">To reiterate, they were most likely they were already there in Mesolithic, Natufian, times and if not, they spread out in the earliest Neolithic times. </span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Rise of the
Semitic Traders </span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We will come back to the fall of the Uruk culture in a minute but this is a good time to divert and briefly discuss this group.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Later, the 'Arabs' of the Gulf region were destined to become famous traders. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Now we can tell that their northern cousins were already in position in the Levant and northern Mesopotamia and had a central role in 'northern' trade from prehistory onwards.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They straddled the northern land route in and out of Egypt, </span><span style="font-family: arial;">the land routes between Sumer and Anatolia and the overland route to the Zagros region, Afghanistan and India.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Both </span><span style="font-family: arial;">Egypt and Sumer were great producers of grain, and became very wealthy, b</span><span style="font-family: arial;">ut were short of many natural resources like metal and wood. They often used reed boats.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Semitic people of the Levant (ancestors to the Phoenicians and others) also had the cedar of Lebanon, and other sources of fine wood. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Also, encouraging sea trade, t</span><span style="font-family: arial;">he </span><span style="font-family: arial;">eastern part of the Mediterranean was also particularly
favourable, due to the combinations of winds, currents, and
general topography. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">So the coastal Semitic people became not only land traders, but the great sea traders of the Mediterranean achieving
a dominance that would last millennia. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sea trade can carry greater loads than land trade.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It was sea trade above anything else that really opened up Egypt to the grain markets of the </span><span style="font-family: arial;">ancient world and led to its great rise</span><span style="font-family: arial;">.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Semitic people of the eastern Mediterranean dominated this sea trade through till the fall of Carthage to the Romans in 146 BC</span><span style="font-family: arial;">.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Coming back to the 'last days' of the Uruk period, these overlapped with the early Middle East Bronze Age </span><span style="font-family: arial;">(beginning 3300 BC.) by several centuries. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Bronze requires not only copper but tin which is relatively rare and the </span><span style="font-family: arial;">'Bronze Age' is synonymous with complex, highly organised, trade.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><br /></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Climate change</span></b></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Other Invaders? </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don't have genetic studies closer to the time but modern Syrians show an influx of genes from the Caucasus and Zagros region. Our history tells us this was likely later, occurring during the time of Amorite Mesopotamia (see later blog) </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">No, the northern (Akkadian) part of Sumer recovered first and w</span><span style="font-family: arial;">hatever happened had to be something particularly affecting the south, not the north. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Uruk period saw the progressive loss of the ‘Indian’ Monsoon, especially affecting Arabia which continued to dry out. Settlements there withdrew to oases and favourable areas of the coast. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">F</span><span style="font-family: arial;">or the rest of the Middle East, the Uruk period was colder and wetter (under the ‘Piora Oscillation’ 3900-3000 BC.)</span><span style="font-family: arial; mso-spacerun: yes;"> Now many </span><span style="font-family: arial;">archaeologists postulate the Uruk culture fell due to</span><span style="font-family: arial; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="font-family: arial;">a long dry spell, causing a rise in salination.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Was there something else as well?</span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Does the Great Flood Myth refer to a real event?<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Climate change sometimes brings a period of climate instability, not just drought but interspersed with floods. The modern world has experienced this with our own recent climate change.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians firmly believed the Uruk period ended with the Great Flood.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Of course, the Sumerians were not the only ancient people to have a flood myth, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>but it was their version that inspired many of the others including the Dravidians (Indians), the Romans, the Greeks ... and the Flood Myth in the Bible. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjr0yQqO3OIMv4hxZ5PjJjmZ8Guw-_yBTM6tFFgJXhWRCIlRWxoizkL8w6hPW2VllnWbV6XR5lH38k1KVoA2FBUDpliPck2sponFdLAAzgZG7rg4H6O2jPFEST7LBi8XHJ5Se36cxqh4po22WvLzqs80zvnRiowWPaVupZxGgMDbvO3ch-FX8bSeVHB7A=s1043" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1043" data-original-width="800" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjr0yQqO3OIMv4hxZ5PjJjmZ8Guw-_yBTM6tFFgJXhWRCIlRWxoizkL8w6hPW2VllnWbV6XR5lH38k1KVoA2FBUDpliPck2sponFdLAAzgZG7rg4H6O2jPFEST7LBi8XHJ5Se36cxqh4po22WvLzqs80zvnRiowWPaVupZxGgMDbvO3ch-FX8bSeVHB7A=s320" width="245" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Gustave Dore, Bible Illustration</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;">The early books of the Bible (<span class="hgkelc">Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, book of Numbers and Deuteronomy) are now thought to be first recorded </span>when many Israelites were held captive in Babylon (from around 598 BC). </span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;"> This means that there is a strong Me</span><span style="font-family: arial;">sopotamian influence on Biblical myths <b>and</b> many were written much later than the purported events they describe.</span><div><p></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 14.4pt;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumerians have different versions of their flood 'myth'. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They all, like the Bible, include the tradition that their antediluvian le</span><span style="font-family: arial;">aders lived for many centuries. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The main Sumerian ‘Noah’ was called Ziusudra and was the leading priest/king of all of Sumer.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">One later version bears a particularly uncanny resemblance to the Biblical story. </span><span style="font-family: arial;"> In this, the ‘Sumerian Noah’ lands on Mt. Nisir, ( meaning ‘mount of salvation’, where-ever that was) rather than being was washed down to Dilmun (part of nearby Arabia in the Persian Gulf) as in other versions .
</span><span style="font-family: arial; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Most modern archaeologists do not take the idea of a great flood seriously.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They argue that if the flood was a real event we
should have records mentioning closer to the time. The earliest mention dates to 1600 BC<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Nippur)</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Perhaps not. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Most versions of the ‘Sumerian Kings List’ mention the flood as the starting point (some give a list the mythical kings before the flood), so we can push this date back many hundreds of years. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is also suspected
that the original ‘SKL’ was written some time during the Akkadian empire
(2334 – 2154 BC) but those copies have been lost, so that might get us a little closer.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">After a great catastrophe (at a time when writing was only
emerging and possibly followed by a time of cultural weakness in the South) it may
not be surprising that we don’t have good records. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In fact, this sort of
situation is not unique in archaeology. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">One thing we know for sure about Sumer is that we have only recovered
a small fraction of what was written, especially from the earliest of times.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Leaving written records to one side, other archaeological evidence shows there was
not one, but <b><i>several truly</i></b> catastrophic floods between 4,000 and 2,000
BC. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Some of these affected different parts of Sumer and some happened after the period of written records and were recorded.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In 1964, Sir Max Mallowan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(eminent archaeologist and husband of Agatha Christie) was amongst
several archaeologists who pointed to one apocalyptic flood, around 2900 BC,
which fits the end of the Uruk Era. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It also involved a very large area in the south, with silt and interrupted
settlement at several sites. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">If this was the ‘big one’ and the source of the myth, it
wasn’t just a once in a thousand year flood. It was Armageddon, the end of the
world. </span><span style="font-family: arial;">It was sent by the Gods to eliminate mankind. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Or at least that’s the way
it must have seemed to the people of Sumer.</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They were well used to damaging floods, their settlements
had massive dykes and flood defences, but they would have been overwhelmed, ending up well under water. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Crops, livestock, livelihoods, important food stores and infrastructure would have been
gone.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They had plenty of reed boats, (canals were the main form
of transport after all) but its hard to<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>know how effective they were in such a massive flood, and the ensuing chaos.
<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Following the fall of the Southern cities of Sumer, it was the Northern (Semitic) cities like Kish, Jemdet Nasr and Akkad that were amongst the first to recover. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Not that the Flood Myths are anything like a historical account, but it is easy to believe such an event was imprinted on the Mesopotamian psyche with scars so deep that the legend lives on till today, five millennia later.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Whatever was the cause of the fall of Uruk, climate seemed to play a huge part. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians had taken their inhospitable land and with massive labour and ingenuity had turned it into one of the most fertile places in Earth, but it was always ready to turn on them.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">One thing about the Sumerians was their ability to recover, but even as they did, time was running out for them and their land.</span></p><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; overflow: visible; padding: 0px;"><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">I hope you have enjoyed this second blog on the Incredible Sumerians. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Part 3 of this 4 part series will look at the Early Dynastic Period' : Recovery, Kings and Emperors </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;">I also write Epic Fantasy set in ancient times. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span>Please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">My first book : 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></span></p><div><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /></span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></span></div></div></h1></div></div></div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-79401367920831086912021-10-01T21:58:00.134-07:002023-01-28T19:04:32.217-08:00The Incredible Sumerians, part 1<p> </p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: arial;">Part 1 The Incredible Sumerians</span></b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: arial;">The Ubaid Era leading to the
first cities</span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="hgkelc">Sumer in south Mesopotamia (southern Iraq) saw the world’s first true urbanisation (first true 'civilisation') at the end of what we call
the ‘Uruk’ <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>period (</span><span class="gywzne">4000–3100 BC).</span></span></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipx9NXqNex7ws2HXQpuf4DXBOij4Cq3ieF-l42kGpkbM5XUWtstxmI4gjeVpSWsJ1BklhyxX2OaT7rJDiEw3olPwMw07Yt8-2tmX_qqSl0T1lvDLnAtbN9yqzgFxjb8oi6qSfBVXMFErcv/s288/288px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="171" data-original-width="288" height="171" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipx9NXqNex7ws2HXQpuf4DXBOij4Cq3ieF-l42kGpkbM5XUWtstxmI4gjeVpSWsJ1BklhyxX2OaT7rJDiEw3olPwMw07Yt8-2tmX_qqSl0T1lvDLnAtbN9yqzgFxjb8oi6qSfBVXMFErcv/s0/288px-White_Temple_ziggurat_in_Uruk.jpg" width="288" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">White Temple Ziggurat, Uruk first built 4,000 BC </span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">It was the next great social revolution,
a quantum change in social organisation, trade and infrastructure, with large,
complex settlements where most of the population was not directly involved in
food gathering. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">Each of these cities would be surrounded by smaller
agricultural villages and a trading network whose role was to supply the city with food, and other resources, in exchange for goods and services. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">With a great reserve of specialists now
able to concentrate on technology, craft, government, religion and war, human
development was able to shift into high gear.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">It was the Sumerians who brought us writing,
the world’s first Epic, the story of the great flood and the Goddess of love and beauty (and war) that was destined to be passed from culture to culture. The Romans called her Venus and the Sumerians called her Inanna.<i> </i></span></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD98pgwPfzT66StL1_k2-cg3ll1nVm_hD7YmJYeYpbvK3TGzlenU2pCm0sBBfWmfSuk738DsvfuhjEdlMI6ywvUUbDvkdFA50CyVqLXg9UUD5h0rU3lgrEZFnJ0Ze871wkTc0h410NArUg/s1024/Inanna.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="755" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgD98pgwPfzT66StL1_k2-cg3ll1nVm_hD7YmJYeYpbvK3TGzlenU2pCm0sBBfWmfSuk738DsvfuhjEdlMI6ywvUUbDvkdFA50CyVqLXg9UUD5h0rU3lgrEZFnJ0Ze871wkTc0h410NArUg/w237-h320/Inanna.jpg" width="237" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Inanna </span></td></tr></tbody></table><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">They also gave us 'Edin’ (its Sumerian name) a sacred garden where sickness and death are unknown. </span><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">They are separate tales but there is mention of a serpent 'who knows no charm' which possessed one of Inanna's trees, and Inanna eating the fruit which gave her knowledge (of sex). </span><div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial;">What she did after that, combined with a very major mischievous streak, made her a favourite figure of Sumerian literature. </span><div><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians even had their own version of a great tower (in this case a ziggurat) and the hubris of a king. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">They gave us the wheel, continually
warring city states, fledgling empires, and so many innovations, it is hard to
list them all. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">And yet, only a hundred years ago, we
didn’t know the Sumerians even existed. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">The cuneiform tablets were somehow thought to be from a non-existent group called ‘Turanians’ (Turks
from central Asia settling in Mesopotamia). The Sumerians were only discovered by accident, by biblical archaeologists looking for evidence of the Great Flood and the Tower of Babel.</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnSGLrK1j0g-RS-6nFhNZBdbhw2ki2irihmcBGx5ajWZdjR_Lm5xaKEEzBfNAKdBpRVEHndUh6d7NuC2MY88uVo8BkwDbekVJc-rH1uv4hdC1yvPLp8_13oBQwDzsi0g6KjR5NNOSCqRzC/s249/220px-British_Museum_Flood_Tablet.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="249" data-original-width="220" height="249" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnSGLrK1j0g-RS-6nFhNZBdbhw2ki2irihmcBGx5ajWZdjR_Lm5xaKEEzBfNAKdBpRVEHndUh6d7NuC2MY88uVo8BkwDbekVJc-rH1uv4hdC1yvPLp8_13oBQwDzsi0g6KjR5NNOSCqRzC/s0/220px-British_Museum_Flood_Tablet.jpg" width="220" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Deluge legend </span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But why did the first cities arise in Sumer? The
place has incredibly rich soil but is virtually a desert, with summer
temperatures reaching 50 <sup>0</sup> C. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">It was so obviously impossible to farm (until something happened in the late Neolithic period). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="gywzne">To understand this, we need to go back
in time to the ‘Ubaid’ period (</span>6500–3800 BC) <span class="gywzne">when first
Neolithic farmers entered this desolate place and not only survived there, but thrived.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;"><i>Sorry for the length of the blog, to give you a sense of the Sumerians, there is a lot to explain</i></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="gywzne" style="font-family: arial;">It was in the Ubaid period that the Sumerians first extended their influence (by conquest and cultural diffusion) to include a
vast area, covering much of the vibrant core of the Copper Age Middle East.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span class="hgkelc" style="font-family: arial;"><b>Prelude,
the Neolithic revolution<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="hgkelc">The (first) Neolithic revolution began
in the Levant around </span>10,000 BC. Initially it was purely agricultural
(Pre Pottery Neolithic A, PPN-A) and it hardly took the world by storm. It
spread slowly and (though estimates vary widely <i>eg. at Jericho</i>) most settlements had less than 500 people.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Then came the more prosperous and vigorous, PPN (B), emerging
in Eastern Anatolia/ western Iran (8800 BC to 6500 BC). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Its settlements grew to 1400 people and by the late PPN B
period <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>would reach up to 4,000. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It had new, innovative,
stone working, architectural and farming techniques and incorporated the
taming of sheep, goats, cattle and pigs.</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5Og_QhGTYUAiiR894pVHG7mG8y5wUuRqwerXtV-vhmSFCBC7Lkl9Vnk_Ch4FWtZgi0n_KR0aT2WClvo9vUKYlrKILB5GVlZSc-oOgrZawkGjaTQwDRayQ-Jnbw9xgALa8w_XTJXB15F49/s444/Neolithic+expansion+fromm+the+fertile+crescent.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="192" data-original-width="444" height="138" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5Og_QhGTYUAiiR894pVHG7mG8y5wUuRqwerXtV-vhmSFCBC7Lkl9Vnk_Ch4FWtZgi0n_KR0aT2WClvo9vUKYlrKILB5GVlZSc-oOgrZawkGjaTQwDRayQ-Jnbw9xgALa8w_XTJXB15F49/s320/Neolithic+expansion+fromm+the+fertile+crescent.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Neolithic expansion from the fertile crescent</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Through people movement and social diffusion, it reached
the Indus Valley in 7,000 BC, Greece about the same time and finally Egypt (via
the Sinai) about 6000 BC.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It also resettled some of the Levant, which was did not
reach prominence again for the rest of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic period<span class="gywzne"> </span><span class="hgkelc"> </span></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span class="hgkelc" style="font-family: arial;"><b><br /></b></span></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span class="hgkelc" style="font-family: arial;"><b>What
was happening in Sumer, at the time?<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc" style="font-family: arial;">Not much.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Northern Mesopotamia (around modern day Baghdad and above)
is part of the fertile crescent with a Mediterranean climate and enough winter
rain to support rain fed agriculture. Things there were wetter than today (maybe
20% more rain) with a peak around 6,500 BC, but southern Mesopotamia missed out not only on this but also the (Indian) Monsoons that passed to the south. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKFPxYW5I5VrVqFe_Chw8xIPhWEHRC8kTB3psIIaMmVzyl9ZtzrrOaHoMTn2US5rB2o_abjHZJouBHnqdiQxLup8d-RWLTsdywxQ828eIN72wCOUMMu1tp5YcFAk5jrYC4ld6Su6V_r3gy/s273/marsh+arabs.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="167" data-original-width="273" height="167" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKFPxYW5I5VrVqFe_Chw8xIPhWEHRC8kTB3psIIaMmVzyl9ZtzrrOaHoMTn2US5rB2o_abjHZJouBHnqdiQxLup8d-RWLTsdywxQ828eIN72wCOUMMu1tp5YcFAk5jrYC4ld6Su6V_r3gy/s0/marsh+arabs.png" width="273" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Arabs of the marshes, wiki</span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;">It was not completely empty of people. The rivers and extensive (brackish) marshes supported a thriving Mesolithic community: catching fish and water birds, plying the channels with reed boats and living in grass huts( sometimes built on floating reed mats).</span><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">After the domestication of herd animals, nomadic herders began to move in (on foot), ranging across more hospitable parts.</span></p><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Both these groups have persisted, with some variations,
through till today but they have not contributed greatly to the archaeological
record. The greater focus has been on farmers and their settlements. </span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Influences that
formed </b><b>the Ubaid Culture </b><b>(</b>6500–3800
BC)</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Ubaid farming culture didn’t appear out of a vacuum.
Our best guess is that the Sumerians came from somewhere else, and brought
existing technology with them, borrowing heavily from their neighbours. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">To
survive in the inhospitable environment the Sumerians had to adapt, and be open
to new ideas.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The three greatest influences on the Ubaid culture (in
order of importance) were the Samarra culture in Middle Mesopotamia, Iran (notably Elam) and the Arabian coast.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Major Influences on the Ubaid Culture </span></b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>1. </b><b>Irrigators, the Samarra
Culture<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Despite differences in culture, the very first Sumerians began
using the technologies of the Samarra Culture, which was just to the north. It was
the Samara Culture that moved into the semi-arid regions at the edge of the
alluvial plain of Sumer, setting up near rivers and forming a very successful
culture.</span></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXr_TA2mWOGvdxa9s8ucpUI-I-7UTqKnBZN-kE0zj4cN-OXtBuPnQTSD67mGpl70WWIAuE-qRPSwrRj_213_BuDeRBy5s0odp-LR9EvEjTDrErGLX3TrVB74sp9ZfQvZGIiSOjLjOvFZUM/s260/260px-Mesopotamian_Prehistorical_cultures.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="204" data-original-width="260" height="251" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXr_TA2mWOGvdxa9s8ucpUI-I-7UTqKnBZN-kE0zj4cN-OXtBuPnQTSD67mGpl70WWIAuE-qRPSwrRj_213_BuDeRBy5s0odp-LR9EvEjTDrErGLX3TrVB74sp9ZfQvZGIiSOjLjOvFZUM/w320-h251/260px-Mesopotamian_Prehistorical_cultures.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Samarra Culture (violet), Ubaid (orange)</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They built mud-brick villages, each with a defensive ditch,
wall and a guard tower. Their main farming included cattle, sheep and goats,
wheat, barley and flax. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The presence of cattle and pigs and crops like flax showed
that they had some form of irrigation. In earlier settlements this didn’t leave
any direct archaeological evidence, which is not too surprising. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In their most advanced settlement Choga Mami around 6,000
BC , there is evidence of a new and exciting innovation: <i>huge</i> irrigation canals,
some reaching more than five kilometres in length.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Constructing and maintaining such gravity-fed irrigation
canals, diverting water into them from the river, following the contours
of the land, levelling fields, terracing and building embankments and levees (to
control flooding and the flow of water) was a monumental task for those Neolithic
settlements, working as they did with stone tools. It both required and
favoured a large and organised work force.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Inundation irrigation is very suitable for grains and animal pasture. It later provided an enormous boon for rice farming in Asia. If a crop doesn’t like inundation, it can still be mass-irrigated by raising parallel furrows, and running water between them.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIyBC6kvAy9FIk2ArhdxL4Mbj6Bo7DVMD4tZ4L1ZHcBue8IK9RVPOO5QiH48aUtCUinzgr4dY_wPLUQ269jcTzJOueKVF91HKZ9AxWJ0-yE_cN4IqihluYfRxXkCrUmioGnem3If-_Ta_v/s876/Innundation+irrigation.png" style="clear: right; display: inline; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="456" data-original-width="876" height="167" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIyBC6kvAy9FIk2ArhdxL4Mbj6Bo7DVMD4tZ4L1ZHcBue8IK9RVPOO5QiH48aUtCUinzgr4dY_wPLUQ269jcTzJOueKVF91HKZ9AxWJ0-yE_cN4IqihluYfRxXkCrUmioGnem3If-_Ta_v/s320/Innundation+irrigation.png" width="320" /></span></a><span style="font-family: arial;"> It was a massive advance for the many dry regions of the Middle East, where rain fed agriculture was not possible, or not reliable enough.</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The technology spread like wild fire. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">When it reached the Nile is unclear but within a couple of
hundred years, canal networks were being constructed over multiple (arid)
regions (like the inland parts of the Levant, the Tehran plain, and the Deh
Luran Plain in northern Elam). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The findings at Tell el-'Oueili<b> </b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(published in French) pushed the start date of
the first settlement in Summer back to 6500 BC. (from 5400 BC) . Called Ubaid 0,
the earliest remains shows continuities with the Samarra culture and the later
Ubaid layers and the first domestication of the date palm.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Irrigation in
Sumer<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But, it was in Sumer that the new
Neolithic irrigators really struck gold. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The southern part of Mesopotamia, Sumer, is a bit like the Nile delta. It
had relatively vast vistas of rich alluvial soil, with seasonal flooding and
flat lowlands. It was a land that almost begging to be irrigated. If the
rivers could be tamed, the very hot sun would become a boon and the desert
would bloom. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But the Tigris-Euphrates is not the Nile. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">With the Nile, spring floods can <i>sometimes</i> be destructive,
especially upstream, but the Nile is the longest river in the world and far tamer than
what the Sumerians faced. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Euphrates doesn’t carve as deeply into the alluvial
plain and more of its length is accessible to irrigation. The Tigris on the other hand is the larger
of the two and is better somewhere below Baghdad (were it flows
higher relative to the flood plain) but it is also the hardest to tame, with
precipitous tributaries. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It carries almost forty times as much water in the
spring floods (4,000-8,000<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>m <sup>3</sup>/s)
than it does near the low water mark (250 m <sup>3</sup>/s). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The melt feeding both these rivers is also less predictable. The floods can arrive late, even in early
summer. One season’s flood may be ten or more times greater than
the year before.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Unchecked, the rivers could wreak terrible destruction and
inundate whole towns. It is no accident that the Sumerians gave us the
mythology of the great flood. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They had to build very strong canals. They had to cope with a
great load of silt capable of clogging them. Then they had to build other
canals to drain their lands to prevent the ever present danger of salinisation and they had to protect their settlements from flooding.
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">And they didn’t have Egypt’s other great resource, which is its ground water. The ground water in Sumer is salty and most often
unusable. It is why they have salt marshes rather than fresh water lakes (and
oases).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">That meant they also had to build special canals to supply
fresh water to settlements sometimes built many kilometres from the rivers, in places either safer from flooding or with lower elevations and hence better for irrigators. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We can’t date the time of construction of these canals
except to say that there was massive construction during the Neolithic and Chalcolithic
times. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In most cases we only have depressions in the landscape to
show where these canals once ran, or scattered evidence of levees, fossil meanders,
abandoned canal systems filled with silt and many hundreds of ancient settlement
sites that bear little relationship with the current course of the rivers.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The task of building these great irrigation works and flood control measures was made easier by the advent of copper (and much later bronze) tools, but it
was still phenomenal. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">One example (around 3,000 BC, admittedly later than the Ubaid
period) was one built to supply water to the Semitic Bronze Age trading city of
Mari (just north of Sumer).</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"> It was an incredible 17 Km long and over a 100
metres wide. </span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgse0Es8pmG7Q7vVWo-q7hjM4-TtpZcSuZZtwGXABmCEruZ97Rx8HGi_zvcZ71oP42f1aLkfLuTDBt819IP8SPZRAjXz6EZgHS0Pq-d8dwAf_CDX0BB1TYsVkxs6ZmElJZED1bfKp8M6oJT/s850/Nahr+Dawrin.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="637" data-original-width="850" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgse0Es8pmG7Q7vVWo-q7hjM4-TtpZcSuZZtwGXABmCEruZ97Rx8HGi_zvcZ71oP42f1aLkfLuTDBt819IP8SPZRAjXz6EZgHS0Pq-d8dwAf_CDX0BB1TYsVkxs6ZmElJZED1bfKp8M6oJT/s320/Nahr+Dawrin.png" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><i style="text-align: left;">Nahr Dawrin</i><span style="text-align: left;"> </span></span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The <i>Nahr Semiramis</i> 80 Km and <i>Nahr Dawrin</i> 120 Km were also built at this time to supply navigable traffic to the city. It’s hard to believe they were man made, built by hand with primitive tools.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As massive as the amount of labour was, the rewards they delivered were incredible.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Another difference between the Nile Delta and Sumer was location. Egypt was relatively isolated from the rest of the Middle East by deserts and mountains.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In one way it protected Egypt in Neolithic and Chalcolithic times but it also meant that Egypt did not truly come into her own till closer to (her unification and) the Bronze Age when bulk transport of Egyptian grain across the Med. became possible (and markets had opened up).</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians, on the other hand, lived in a dangerous part of the world. Warfare and raiding had begun in early tribal Palaeolithic times. The Sumerians had to be tough and smart to survive.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But the great benefit for them was that they were closely connected to the great Neolithic powerhouses of Anatolia and Western Iran (for trade and relatively rapid exchange of ideas). They were destined to rise to become <i>the</i> major culture of the region, for a long, long time.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">And the world’s
first true civilisation.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Much, much,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>later,
irrigation in the hot dry climate, with the high water table and brackish
ground water would result in salinisation in South Mesopotamia (and declining
crop yields). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians adapted for a long time by focusing on salt
tolerant crops like barley and date palm. Presumably they used other
adaptations like bringing loads of non irrigated soil from the desert and
putting it on top of the ‘sour’ soil, so they could grow small crops like
vegetables.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">By that stage, time was running out for Sumer. All it
would take was a severe, prolonged, drought to reduce the seasonal flooding and
bring the salinisation to a crisis point, and this finally came around 2,200
B.C., during a 2-300 year drought. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It caused crop failures and depopulation that led to the
final fall of Sumer (to Elam). The long dominance of southern Mesopotamia had
come to an end.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But this wasn’t then. <span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Major Influences on the Ubaid Culture </span></b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>2.</b><b> Elam </b>(Iran’s
Khuzestan province)<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Elam, Sumer’s neighbour always had a close and complicated
relationship with Sumer.</span></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjySMVhew5j4vhUch7Wc6cxaQeRkzYXuH4_rPlcO72kjElpqtwFc8vXbE0iq4GY9Nv7W-rf9p63GlTP5A9QawPiFjEizHx6E8FU6nxp928TNGtQ5QT_zQ5SIUsgS1NNXKDCHPFjT-C-Pp8R/s800/800px-Elam_Map-en.svg.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="692" data-original-width="800" height="277" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjySMVhew5j4vhUch7Wc6cxaQeRkzYXuH4_rPlcO72kjElpqtwFc8vXbE0iq4GY9Nv7W-rf9p63GlTP5A9QawPiFjEizHx6E8FU6nxp928TNGtQ5QT_zQ5SIUsgS1NNXKDCHPFjT-C-Pp8R/s320/800px-Elam_Map-en.svg.png" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Elam (from much later). Note new coast line, in blue</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It lies on the windwards side of the southern Zagros for moisture-laden
winds and was able to support rain-fed agriculture during PPN (B) period. This
made it older and initially more advanced than Sumer. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is also well watered by rivers flowing from nearby mountains.
Susa, one of its greatest settlements and later the capital of the first
‘Persian’ Empire, was on the flood plain of no less than <i>three</i> water
courses. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Elam, as mentioned above, had its arid parts like the Deh Luran Plain just
to the north. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Major Influences on the Ubaid Culture </span></b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>3. </b><b>Arabian
Peninsula<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">From 7000- 4000 BC, southern Arabia and the lands around
the Persian Gulf were very much wetter than today, with the South West Indian
monsoons diverted north. For a time, there were lots of lakes amongst the sand
dunes of Arabia and the sea levels were lower. The Arabian people of this time were likely culturally related to the people of the Mesopotamian marshes.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Crossing the ocean and ocean fishing had been possible
from early Palaeolithic times, and the coast of Arabia developed a thriving
maritime culture.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In anything maritime or for travelling across the nearby desert,
the Arabs were better. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The time before
writing: huge gaps in our understanding.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Writing was invented in Summer , firstly by pictographs
about 3,500 BC. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">By 2,800 BC<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>they
had evolved it into a phonetic, cuneiform script that could be used to represent
not only Sumerian but other languages. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We know the most about Sumer from the period after writing,
somewhat less from the period of cities before writing and only have relatively
scanty information on the time before cities.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is not just a combination of the sheer length of time
involved or the fragility of early constructions with the relative shortage of
wood and stone.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">South Mesopotamia (like the Nile delta, only worse) had an
environment uniquely suited to <i>concealing </i>the earliest archaeological records. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Rising sea levels started around 20,000 BC when the sea
was <span class="hgkelc">125 meters</span> lower than today and reached a peak
around 5,000 BC, around 2 metres above today. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Some of Sumer's early cities were
established as large towns on the coast, at the time of the 'high water mark'. That, and accumulation of silt, means that their ruins have ended a long way from today’s coast.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Persian Gulf is only thirty metres deep and the flood plain is low lying and flat. So, even earlier coastal settlements established when the sea levels were lower would have disappeared. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">At various times the marshes were bigger and the course of the rivers in the alluvial flood plain of Sumer changed in ways that
didn’t happen in Upper Mesopotamia, where they had carved their way into the bed
rock.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">More important is the massive amount of silt and floods
(far more than the Nile delta) which gave something like 3.28 inches/year of silt spread over the hundred square miles of the flood plain (which is exactly where we are
looking for the most ancient settlements).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This means that if any early settlement remains aren’t
under the sea, marshes, or rivers, they are at least buried under many metres of silt. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They would be impossible to find unless later generations had
built on top of them. The layers of repeated rebuilding resulting in a ‘tell’ (meaning 'small hill' in Arabic). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">But this brings another problem. Excavation down to what are
very deep layers, must preserve the overlying ruins. The solution is a technique
called<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘deep sounding’ (digging deep but
narrow holes to sample the layers deep below) but it’s like looking through a
key hole into the scant remains of the distant past. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">This is even worse for grave sites, which are usually a
rich archaeological source. Burials were increasingly made in an area separated
from habituation which might make them harder to find. If we don’t find any
organic material, we can't use carbon dating and have to use thing like
pottery for dating.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><i><span style="font-family: arial;">Of course the tragic wars in Syria and Iraq, and a regime change in Iran, haven’t
always helped archaeological excavation. <o:p></o:p></span></i></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As a result of all these problems, some of our best information
is from when the Ubaid culture spread north and East to sites that are more
accessible. We need to be cautious interpreting these, as we know there were significant
regional differences. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>The Ubaid Culture</b> <b>and the Transition to cities<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The <b>Ubaid </b>culture <span style="text-align: center;">(c. </span><a name="_Hlk83814433" style="text-align: center;">6500–3800 BC) </a>lasted from the late Middle East
Neolithic throughout much of the Middle East Copper Age. That is an incredible three millennia.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The canals and the ploughed fields resulted in an enormous
food surplus.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">More and more workers were not directly involved in food
production. There was a great increase in artisans, traders, priests, scribes,
and merchants. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With the greater wealth
came even greater trade. Government and religion became better organised and
stratified. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Exactly when the transition to cities happened is unclear,
but it is usually dated at about 4,000 BC, at the start of the next phase, called the 'Uruk' period after its greatest city. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><i>(Note: the Middle East Bronze Age began later, about 3,300 BC)</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Some aspects of
Ubaid culture and life.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Ceramics<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Archaeologists use ceramics as the default marker of Neolithic
cultures and time periods. This has advantages but also limitations.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQswAqn7g946_xUkaq9ZMbOAnns7MBdYdifGDHE5YVK1FQ4GZJfQaDPz9wHOmqrxKPSbzlCsJiNzcyUvp__gdyo7QKQPGjKge6VmTyPnrH2KA4hfxJbYmx5HKmKquS-LytDs72uI1FXmoY/s800/800px-Ubaid_III_pottery_jar_5300-4700_BC_Louvre_Museum.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="800" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQswAqn7g946_xUkaq9ZMbOAnns7MBdYdifGDHE5YVK1FQ4GZJfQaDPz9wHOmqrxKPSbzlCsJiNzcyUvp__gdyo7QKQPGjKge6VmTyPnrH2KA4hfxJbYmx5HKmKquS-LytDs72uI1FXmoY/w200-h150/800px-Ubaid_III_pottery_jar_5300-4700_BC_Louvre_Museum.jpg" width="200" /></span></a></div><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The <b>Ubaid Culture</b> was (first) defined by<b> </b>its
distinct unglazed pottery with dark painted decorations. It was baked <span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 200%;">in high-temperature kilns with chaff
for tempering. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The pottery was formed by adding strips of clay, coiled
around, and shaped by hand, scrappers and/or paddles. For this, the clay was placed on a grass mat that
could be rotated by hand. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The ‘slow wheel’ or ‘<span class="q-box">tournette’ was
invented somewhere on the Tehran plain </span>around 5,000 BC. It had <span class="q-box">a cone of the reverse side that could fit into a small hole on the
floor or a stand, to allow it to rotate <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(a bit like a ‘lazy Susan’) but its use was
restricted to larger workshops.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="q-box" style="font-family: arial;">Other cultures made beautiful ceramics,
but the Ubaid people seemed to have developed some sort of mass production, and
often had large workshops, for one reason and one reason alone, for trade. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="q-box" style="font-family: arial;">For their everyday pottery, the painted
designs got simpler over time. It’s speculative, but perhaps they could produce
and trade them cheaply. Whatever the reason, they became very popular and, over
time, were exported over a vast region.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Ophidian
figurines<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There was a range of other ceramics.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqcM6gFFBE6SwIqHA6Q9oFXF5mtT3XWNM2KvUROKUbWYTbvP_DY8XaRMcHL7Nkep-gHDC3fzklhdKg-VQJNVeWEPCpeG9CE5YAYo18LGrncVxipm24DozJ1_bASsp7YRvKYWoBMP3rvCSc/s293/220px-Two_female_figurines_with_bitumen_headdresses_ceramic_Ur_Iraq_Ubaid_4_period_4500-4000_BCE.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="293" data-original-width="220" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjqcM6gFFBE6SwIqHA6Q9oFXF5mtT3XWNM2KvUROKUbWYTbvP_DY8XaRMcHL7Nkep-gHDC3fzklhdKg-VQJNVeWEPCpeG9CE5YAYo18LGrncVxipm24DozJ1_bASsp7YRvKYWoBMP3rvCSc/w150-h200/220px-Two_female_figurines_with_bitumen_headdresses_ceramic_Ur_Iraq_Ubaid_4_period_4500-4000_BCE.jpg" width="150" /></span></a></div><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The early Neolithic people were especially fond of ‘mother
figures’, usually seated, with broad hips and sometimes dangling breasts. They
are thought to represent the Mother Goddess.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Mesopotamians also made distinctive ceramic figures with ophidian (snake-like) heads, most likely cult figures. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They were male and female, more androgynous, with long heads, almond shaped eyes, long tapered faces and a lizard-type noses. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They had head dresses and shoulder pads but were otherwise naked, often painted with dark dots or stripes perhaps indicating tattoos, scarification or body paint.</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9Ip5SqjUhDbGHxC67I2YaxTPCFe_zUOu2pnhSKmNLUOP7N9cnS9Ypte6URUKy5rYEED14XEnCwWC4dooS2ApOskRoQY3gIuAvrMliVEOiVRJO3JlijsQYYu_I30VvDycKl6Oe-S0abh9N/s288/Skull+deformation.png" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="262" data-original-width="288" height="182" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg9Ip5SqjUhDbGHxC67I2YaxTPCFe_zUOu2pnhSKmNLUOP7N9cnS9Ypte6URUKy5rYEED14XEnCwWC4dooS2ApOskRoQY3gIuAvrMliVEOiVRJO3JlijsQYYu_I30VvDycKl6Oe-S0abh9N/w200-h182/Skull+deformation.png" width="200" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In the north of Mesopotamia it has been recently found that some of the Ubaid people practiced cranial deformation (binding children’s skulls with bandages) a rather dangerous practice, probably related in some way to this cult. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Cattle, and the
plough</span></b></div>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Cattle<b> </b>had been domesticated in south west Turkey
6,000 BC. By 5,000 BC the more <span class="hgkelc">drought-tolerant, humped
(Zebu), cattle </span>had been bred in Iran. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Mesopotamian swamps became a great place for water
buffalo, but they wouldn’t arrive until 2500 BC (via the Indus Valley
Civilisation). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Apart from them, cattle, like pigs, couldn’t survive
naturally in the arid south without irrigated pastures or hand feeding. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They not only provided meat, milk and leather, they were
the only beast of burden available to the early Sumerians . The donkey was
domesticated in Northern Africa (beginning 6,000 BC) but their use didn’t reach
Mesopotamia until around 3,500 BC.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Similarly the horse was domesticated in 3,500 BC probably near
Kazakhstan and the first camels about 3000 BC. in southern Arabia. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Likely the wooden scratch <b>plough</b>, (the ‘ard’), was
invented not long after the domestication of cattle, making ploughing much more
efficient than hoeing by hand. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Terracotta sickles
began replacing stone inserted into wooden handles.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">New crops<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The main staple crops were barley and wheat. The date palm
was domesticated very early and became a major export. Grapes had been domesticated
in the Caucasus<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>6,000 BC. (or earlier)
but their use became widespread. Iran was producing wine in quantity for trade about
5,000 BC.. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Olives were domesticated in the northern fertile crescent
around 6,000 BC. and became an important crop. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Ubaid people created gardens, shaded by date palms,
where they cultivated a wide variety of crops including beans, peas, lentils,
cucumbers, leeks, lettuce and garlic and fruit like grapes, apples, melons and
figs </span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Sorry, no
chickens.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Chickens came from Asia, probably via the Indus Valley
civilisation. They arrived in Iran 3900 BC and Turkey and Syria about 2400–2000
BC. They were bred for cock-fighting and <i>not </i>as a source of meat or eggs
until around 300 BC. (with the possible exception of Asia) making their uptake
slow.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Hunting</span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 200%;"> Hamrin gazelle, wild equids and <b>fishing</b>
were supplementary sources of meat.</span><b> <o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Trade<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Many people would be amazed at how busy trade was in the
Neolithic world. Here is some of the notable items</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Imports</b>
included:<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Obsidian, </b>this sharp volcanic glass (already shaped
into blades) was highly prized before copper tools became more common. The main
source of it was Anatolia and Iran. <span class="mw-headline">The merchants of
Sumer became middle men for the export of it along the Arabian Coast. Later, a secondary source was found in Yemen. </span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Bitumen </b>was imported in
significant quantities for construction and water proofing<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from nearby regions of Iran and later from northern
Iraq.</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline" style="font-family: arial;"><b>Shells </b>came from the Persian Gulf and Arabian coast (maybe, but not certainly, the Indian coast)</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline" style="font-family: arial;">Beautiful <b>Lapis lazuli </b>from Afghanistan began (6,500 BC) began finding its way into Iran but not a lot reached Sumer till later. Turquoise also came later.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline" style="font-family: arial;"><b>Carnelian Beads </b>came from Iran (and from India in the Uruk period) and were very popular and were also on-shipped to Arabia. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A lot of<b> dried fish </b>came<b>
</b>from the Arabian coast and Persian Gulf (including tuna from Oman)</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Myrrh and Incense</b> came from inland Arabia, via the coast. </span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Copper </b>came<b> </b>from Iran, Turkey and<b> </b>later
Oman. At first it was uncommon and used mainly for jewellery but by the mid
fifth millennium BC <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>copper tools and
weapons were becoming more common.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"> <b>Exports</b> Included </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="color: #333333;"><span style="background-color: white;">T</span></span>heir high-fired <b>pottery</b> which
proved enduringly popular and spread over a vast region, more distant sites
produced copies.</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span class="mw-headline">Sumer also had big <b>weaving</b>
shops in some settlements </span><span style="background: white; color: #333333;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline" style="font-family: arial;"><b>Wool </b>began to displace linen in the middle Ubaid period. Sheep began to be specifically bred for wool rather than mainly meat </span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There are too many other trade items to mention (and we
don’t fully understand them all ) but the local beer was very popular
(sometimes drank from a communal bowl by straws). Wine, leather, fruit and
preserved meat were all traded, herbs for cooking and medicine, perfumes, and
body paint were some of the other items .</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Stone and wood was not plentiful locally, but became more
common as wealth began to flow into the region. <span style="line-height: 200%;">Stone was crafted into objects such as vessels, seals, beads,
pendants, and mace heads. Slings, arrows, shields and spears were also commonly used in warfare.</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Transport</b><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b>Water</b> transport along the rivers, swamps and larger
bodies of water was the best way of getting around in ancient times, beginning
early in the Palaeolithic Age.</span></p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3w9VeSaCF9xptiujkUuG54q4wSXt_PV-Jg5z7qh1yOq4NW7jUpOlh-8xPgHydCYBzEVutZyUCVu6BOrUNtICTtqkxlIlnVnfj8_R00kZ2i2l30bRxr3rnAyAOchmuL0-XAtbUautjNkRo/s800/800px-Schilfboot_Ra_II.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="548" data-original-width="800" height="219" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj3w9VeSaCF9xptiujkUuG54q4wSXt_PV-Jg5z7qh1yOq4NW7jUpOlh-8xPgHydCYBzEVutZyUCVu6BOrUNtICTtqkxlIlnVnfj8_R00kZ2i2l30bRxr3rnAyAOchmuL0-XAtbUautjNkRo/s320/800px-Schilfboot_Ra_II.jpg" width="320" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; text-align: start;"><i>RA 11 (Thor Heyerdahl) built on an ancient design</i></span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumer, like Egypt, was hampered by a shortage of wood and
favoured reed boats sealed with melted bitumen, mixed with vegetable and mineral additives. It is very likely that it was an expansion of the reed boats
already used in the marshes and rivers. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLpFOOUQeTf4ZYjeSJqEFq2OLnNJp3axLIS5TV8cGR9XbXKFM9DTpjGr_YS3wTym6i9krEyYsABdnO_gC3qF4UJTzbZbV7PLdJx1gk5ofvFa9BDFbLZrkW8QyfeEwuE9TxgxdHCtdCpUBJ/s478/352px-Kuphar.jpg" style="clear: right; display: inline; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="478" data-original-width="352" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLpFOOUQeTf4ZYjeSJqEFq2OLnNJp3axLIS5TV8cGR9XbXKFM9DTpjGr_YS3wTym6i9krEyYsABdnO_gC3qF4UJTzbZbV7PLdJx1gk5ofvFa9BDFbLZrkW8QyfeEwuE9TxgxdHCtdCpUBJ/s320/352px-Kuphar.jpg" width="236" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">A Kuphar</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They are still in occasional use today but wood has become more popular.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Some of them were like reed canoes (often with upturned ends), resembling the ones used in Peru.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A rather unique reed boat one was rounded like a coracle, but very big, capable of
carrying many people. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They were usually paddled or rowed. Sea going reed boats were made though they took considerable man-power to construct.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There is evidence that sails had been used in Ubaid times with even a model of a <i>double-masted</i> vessel found in Kuwait. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The people of the coast of Arabia were superior sea farers to the Sumerians. The oldest reed boat was found there, in Kuwait dating back to 7,000 BC</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is a little unclear , but sea trade with India didn't seem to be much until the Uruk period.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Despite the major challenges of land transport (without the wheel) the main trading route with India (such as it was) was an overland extension of the busier trade from Afghanistan , especially in lapis lazuli.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWho3oT9m8JkA12Nfe7K0YHRPxufQLykOy4dTJJTr2zrnQXxxN2sPOLEyb8NHcU_t73b5z4VfiiIMO7LM0chyxjJi9n6uVKUIx_uZCogDr9xE2t6nQvGR3IDk5ZoA4HQTflPZ_4ZaaAYhV/s887/Mesopotamia+to+India.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="887" height="135" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWho3oT9m8JkA12Nfe7K0YHRPxufQLykOy4dTJJTr2zrnQXxxN2sPOLEyb8NHcU_t73b5z4VfiiIMO7LM0chyxjJi9n6uVKUIx_uZCogDr9xE2t6nQvGR3IDk5ZoA4HQTflPZ_4ZaaAYhV/w200-h135/Mesopotamia+to+India.jpg" width="200" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i><span style="font-family: arial;">Trade routes during the Uruk period</span></i></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p> </o:p><b style="text-align: center;">Land transport</b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumer is credited with the discovery of ‘<b>the wheel’</b>
(around 4400 BC), supposedly related to the potter’s wheel.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHptbaK5OmqI_jPAkN-5VarsqgdK9bznO0QDAQ-_4amcM_Qe1_ImkWudIKbRch-FRg_nFrn2n11Q9rhSXUyYjP6jpHCoKIUxN-uJXKAcl_yDkq6PPTN-ZZLJ0CcSkR9wq7aej-nKaJ5J2_/s843/Cart+1.png" style="clear: right; display: inline; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="843" data-original-width="800" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHptbaK5OmqI_jPAkN-5VarsqgdK9bznO0QDAQ-_4amcM_Qe1_ImkWudIKbRch-FRg_nFrn2n11Q9rhSXUyYjP6jpHCoKIUxN-uJXKAcl_yDkq6PPTN-ZZLJ0CcSkR9wq7aej-nKaJ5J2_/w190-h200/Cart+1.png" width="190" /></span></a><span style="font-family: arial;">Conceiving of 'the wheel' wasn’t at all difficult and it is not true that this shape was not present in nature. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">What was difficult was making a workable cart with two or four wheels and axles so that it could be pulled relatively easily, <i>better than a sled or travois</i>, by bullocks. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The wheels and ends of the axle,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>need to be symmetrical, round and matching, with the hole
in the exact centre of the wheels. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The wheel and axle need to be a good fit, all to
minimise friction and ungainly wobbling. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The fine work required for this had to await the advent of <b>copper
tools </b>and related technologies. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The technology to make carts spread so quickly that it is
hard to know whether it originated in Sumer or somewhere else. </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgf230fbRZzeiO1Zrs7vwHSLmwAF9CfAPD8Rbt0pzH86zQ_uZl1f09kpjgkMifuscHpmh7WLcnPoCiZ3jPtypO9wlw9Vc7tEDN-c2xCkB-8Nblzv2b8q_YeyjtShD9K31U-qwmpKRrojub2/s632/Cart+2.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="376" data-original-width="632" height="119" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgf230fbRZzeiO1Zrs7vwHSLmwAF9CfAPD8Rbt0pzH86zQ_uZl1f09kpjgkMifuscHpmh7WLcnPoCiZ3jPtypO9wlw9Vc7tEDN-c2xCkB-8Nblzv2b8q_YeyjtShD9K31U-qwmpKRrojub2/w200-h119/Cart+2.png" width="200" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: arial;">Usually the axle was fixed, though a <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>wheel and axle rotating together was used in the Alpine culture north of Italy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br /></span><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The early carts were inefficient
affairs with wheels cut from the cross section of tree trunks. Later, they were made from wooden planks, which made them
lighter, more uniform, and easier to make.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Houses<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The tripartite house, with some variations, became the
enduring standard across much of the Middle East (including Egypt). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They would commonly be about 90 sq. meters in size with a
single entrance and were made from un-mortared mudbricks (mixed with chaff).
They were most often plastered with clay (mixed with cow-dung for water-proofing on the outside). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Gypsum or lime painting/ plastering was available inside for
wealthier citizens and one house was discovered with some sort of paintings inside in
ochre, the details of which have not survived.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHCCBLtWxgnoBWM5qP2ONcCFubAgffbxpF8NMKy5DVq8y3TvbA-ib174ov3yrEsQGR_Mcd1eijEEdPGjqO33LDkDosdkjuA_hYTuW8_wIAN4LWpBwGKb9-kfDP815mltEcbGzWwKzYA849/s288/Tripartate+house.png" style="clear: right; display: inline; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="288" data-original-width="231" height="288" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHCCBLtWxgnoBWM5qP2ONcCFubAgffbxpF8NMKy5DVq8y3TvbA-ib174ov3yrEsQGR_Mcd1eijEEdPGjqO33LDkDosdkjuA_hYTuW8_wIAN4LWpBwGKb9-kfDP815mltEcbGzWwKzYA849/s0/Tripartate+house.png" width="231" /></span></a></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Initially a lot in settlements were built on one level but roughly divided
into thirds (hence the name). There was a reception area, a living area (with a
hearth) and rear sleeping areas. The first two spaces had alcoves and tiny side
rooms for storage or cottage industry. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The roof was flat (accessible by ladder)
and, in regions with little rain, shade could be set up to give an extra living
space and crops could be set out to dry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The windows would presumably be closed by thatch or maybe even linen in the
wealthier homes. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sometimes they had a second floor or loft (with downstairs
space for animals). By the time Sumerians built cities, three floors had became
standard. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Not everyone in the settlement had a house. Pictographs
(later) showed that many people still lived in thatched huts made from reeds bundled
together and palm leaves. Nomads had some sort of tent. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Villages<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Settlements were mostly unwalled, usually small, rarely exceeding
10 hectares. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Later, larger settlements several times this size emerged,
surrounded by smaller ‘satellite’ villages, likely with some form of administrative
connection to each other. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Many of these large settlements (like Eridu and Ur)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>went on to become cities in the Uruk period,
and they could have been considered as ‘proto-cities’ during the Ubaid period.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Specialised
buildings<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Depending on the village, there may be a <b>communal
granary</b>, sometimes round, sometimes elevated, sometimes arranged in a grid
pattern. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Grain was also a form of currency and clay tokens were
used to record deposits of grain into the common storage. Over time these
tokens became more elaborate, recording other goods. This accounting system
then became the precursor for the pictographic form of writing. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The villages had
some sort of head man, but increasingly life became centred around the <b>temple</b>.
</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibbQvJU6jfNWBdXbd-o6pmBXXmgA66ODmSrcFbtxvlHoXeO1IluJ2c2y4Ro1ksbpDkrXPbdFIA93yBqcpkDS4Zdm-wU0XfAmyHLKn1KOf8jjqqca_5XNMguJVoO1SSUDAsdTCm0oF0uhmo/s520/Sumerian+worshiper.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="520" data-original-width="396" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibbQvJU6jfNWBdXbd-o6pmBXXmgA66ODmSrcFbtxvlHoXeO1IluJ2c2y4Ro1ksbpDkrXPbdFIA93yBqcpkDS4Zdm-wU0XfAmyHLKn1KOf8jjqqca_5XNMguJVoO1SSUDAsdTCm0oF0uhmo/w245-h320/Sumerian+worshiper.png" width="245" /></span></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sumerian Worshiper <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/">(Osama Amin)</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-family: arial;">At <span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">first the temples didn’t look too different to
houses, except they were larger, were not used for accommodation and had<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> a</span> large number of infant burials (in pots). <o:p></o:p></span></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">Over time, they were built on
raised platforms and the </span>corners were oriented to the four cardinal
directions.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As mentioned, some buildings were trade <b>shops, trade warehouses</b>
and <b>workshops</b> for weaving (linen), pot making and metal working and
smelting, but a lot of the cottage industry <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>was done inside the home. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Monumental architecture</span></b><span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Settlements in Elam had huge step platform-temples, the precursors
of ziggurats. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Social styles.<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The people of the Ubaid practiced body piercing (ears and
noses), using studs made from obsidian.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Shells filled with pigments of red, white, yellow, blue,
green, and black with carved applicators have been found in tombs indicating
the use of body paint. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">To make perfume, they soaked fragrant plants in water and
added oil. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">They also used the many herbs found across the Neolithic
world to flavour food and to prepare medicines. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Graves<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">As society became more complex religion, ritual and
burials became more standardised with the common use of graveyards.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Mostly grave goods were simple: the usual <span style="line-height: 200%;">was a </span>drinking goblet or
beaker, a serving dish, and a small jar indicating food offerings. Also commonly
found were beads (stone and ceramic<span style="line-height: 200%;">)</span>, <span style="line-height: 200%;">pins and shell
pendants</span> in positions that showed they were either attached to the body
or clothing <span style="line-height: 200%;">, obsidian labrets
(nose and ear plugs)were also found as well as personal seals, and ochre<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>palettes for makeup. <o:p style="font-size: 11.5pt;"></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Most graves were simple pits, sometimes lined by stone or
mud-brick, but some graves were elaborate with a lot of grave goods, indicating
social stratification. One unique grave, for example, had a sizable subterranean
structure with a lateral burial chamber at the bottom of a vertical shaft. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Mathematics<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians divided units into a base of sixty (which
simplifies fractions) and they passed this system on to the Babylonians. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">It is
why we have sixty seconds in a minute, sixty minutes to the hour, twelve
inches to the foot, 360 degrees in a circle and so on.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">The Ubaid expansion
<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Sometime around<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>4800–4500 BC<span style="line-height: 200%;"> (Ubaid
3-4), distinctive aspects of Ubaid culture began to spread to the neighbouring
regions. It eventually reached a vast area including Northern Syria, the south
Caucasus , eastern Anatolia, the </span>plain of Antioch, Western Iran, Elam
and the coast of Arabia<span style="line-height: 200%;">.</span></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisd44ohqsSLWpYoTbvxFJccvUOFNc0QuvDw8-f-SBgrMaGXIB_i_BQRbpf5f-4s4OD-mjlVnIpsC9YCtGjzv3pT23pihnz0aniVCPpDgJW8dUTk63r5G48FVsDrktv1YfPf1j7ha-7OSRu/s800/800px-Map_Ubaid_culture-en.svg.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><img border="0" data-original-height="694" data-original-width="800" height="278" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisd44ohqsSLWpYoTbvxFJccvUOFNc0QuvDw8-f-SBgrMaGXIB_i_BQRbpf5f-4s4OD-mjlVnIpsC9YCtGjzv3pT23pihnz0aniVCPpDgJW8dUTk63r5G48FVsDrktv1YfPf1j7ha-7OSRu/s320/800px-Map_Ubaid_culture-en.svg.png" width="320" /></span></a></div><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Mostly this seemed to be a peaceful integration of increasing
aspects of the Ubaid culture into the local culture, but not always. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Chogha Mish, an important early settlement in Elam was burnt. It and several surrounding villages were abandoned for a period. The populace seemed
to have established Susa at this time. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">In northern Mesopotamia, there is an abrupt transition in
two sites near Mosul, one Tell Arpachiyah, having a famous burnt (market-) house. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Exactly what happened we don’t know, but it looks suspiciously like a great
group of the Ubaid people had moved in, sacking their neighbours and (at least in the north) occupying their
settlements.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Fall of the
Ubaid Culture<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Ubaid culture was defeated by drought in the north and
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>loss of the Indian monsoons in the south
around 3800- 4,000 BC. . There was a reduction in settlements along the coast
of Arabia, the Ubaid Culture retreated back to Southern Mesopotamia. Parts of
Elam ,like Susa, were abandoned for a time. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerian culture would rise again, bigger and even
better organised than before , and with it, the first cities.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-family: arial;">Who were the
Sumerians?<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians called themselves the ‘dark headed ones’. As
the population of Sumer was sparse before irrigation most believe that they
came from elsewhere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We can tell from their cuneiform tablets that they spoke a
language ‘isolate’ (not connected to any other known language) and the Elamites
spoke their own language isolate.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There are all sorts of theories of the origin of the
Sumerians. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Sumerians don’t mention any people preceding
themselves, but the presence of loan words (not Semitic or Sumerian) has made
some researchers wonder if they were preceded by another people (speaking what
has been called ‘Proto-Euphratean’, others have called it the ‘banana’ language because
of its cadence<b>). <o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There are multiple possibilities as to who these speakers could
have been. They could have been the irrigators from the Samarra culture or one of
the indigenous fisherfolk or herders that existed before the Ubaid culture, we
have no way of knowing.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">Some have suggested that the Ubaid culture, which
collapsed due to a drought, and the Uruk culture coming a couple of hundred
years later were different people.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">A genetic analysis of two skeletons 2,000 BC and 500
AD revealed this pair to be Dravidians (related to the Indus Valley
Civilisation and modern day Tamils). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">We don’t yet know whether these were indigenous Sumerians
or just visiting traders. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There was substantial maritime trade with the Indian
subcontinent by the time of the Bronze Ages. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">The Indus Valley Civilisation rose
mainly in the Bronze Age. It relied mainly on rain fed agriculture from the monsoons
until it, too fell to a prolonged drought (which was when the Aryan herders began to
increasingly move in from the north, but that's another story)</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">For a time, the IVC was a very advanced and prosperous culture with an estimated population almost
<b>twenty times</b> that of Mesopotamia.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-mmv-title" style="font-family: arial;">Most , not all, see the
Dravidians as indigenous to south and central India. The overland trade route
through Afghanistan and Iran has been open since Neolithic times, but there is
no evidence of a large exodus of Dravidians that way. There is a shortcut from
Pakistan direct to Iran but it passes through<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>one of the driest parts of Iran (though it may have been more hospitable
in pre-history). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-mmv-title" style="font-family: arial;">Or, they could have come by sea. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-mmv-title" style="font-family: arial;">If they were the people of the Ubaid culture, the maritime part of the journey was only half what it is today due to the lower sea levels. It would still be a thousand Km.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: arial;">There has been a minority attempt (Clyde A Winters) to
link Elamite, Dravidian and African languages, suggesting the Dravidians were a
late migration out of Africa (2600 BC) going via Sumer and then Elam to India. The
idea is problematic and there is not much support for this amongst linguists </span><o:p></o:p></p><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; overflow: visible; padding: 0px;"><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">I hope you have enjoyed this first blog on the Incredible Sumerians.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">I also write Epic Fantasy set in ancient times. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span>Please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">My first book : 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></span></p><div><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /></span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></span></div></div></h1></div></div></div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-69676083899586333532021-06-29T20:21:00.021-07:002021-07-26T17:57:17.427-07:00The Fall of the Roman Republic 3, Descent into Chaos<p> </p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span> </p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The Late Republic (133 BC-44 BC)</b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Middle period of the Republic ended in 133 BC with the
murder of Tiberius Gracchus (and three hundred of his supporters) for trying to
help the poor. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It was the first political murder in the Republic’s 376 year
history. Greed, corruption, and self-interest
was now preventing the Senate from resolving pressing issues. The Senate was now fighting the common people. While it had done this before, its ruthlessness would prove to be the Republic’s final
undoing.</p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Another Gracchi
Brother, more political murders<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Gaius Gracchus</b> was nine years younger than Tiberius
and became elected as a Tribune of the Plebs in 123 and in 122 BC. One of the
best orators of his time, he proved even more effective than his brother. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">He introduced the right of appeal to a popular assembly (<i>provocatio)
</i>against a Senate-imposed death sentence. He made the army supply clothing
and equipment to its soldiers, continued land reforms, established colonies, and
introduced a subsidised grain dole. He also unsuccessfully tried to get full
citizen rights to all Latins.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">While he was away establishing a colony near the ruins of
Carthage, <b>Lucius Opimius, </b>an arch conservative, was elected consul and<b>
</b>moved to repeal Gaius’s legislation. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In the ensuing mass protests, the Senate declared a State of
emergency (later called Senatus consultum ultimum<b>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Opimius </b>took this as meaning he could use
any means to end the crisis. He murdered Gracchus and others and set up a
tribunal to execute a further 3,000 of his political opponents (without right
of appeal). This was extra-ordinary behaviour and beyond the power of the Senate but now became accepted and a terrible weapon in the hands of the Senate. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Gaius Marius and
reform of the Army (100 BC)<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Gaius Marius, </b>a<b> </b>war hero and one of the Populares. He was a Consul an incredible six times (107 -100 BC) before losing favour (with the Senate). He
was foremost in reforming the Roman Army: abolishing the property requirement, resulting in a massive decline in conscription and making the army more effective and professional.
The new legions were now loyal to their standard and commanders above the
Republic, the importance of which wouldn’t become apparent till later.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Another
reformer, another murder and another Purge<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Marcus Livius Drusus</b> became elected as Plebian tribune in
91 BC.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">He was known as a principled, conscientious and generous
Patrician, a member of a small circle of Optimates lead by Lucius Crassus that supported
the power of the Senate but still wanted reform. He followed their agenda.</p><p class="Myparagraph">Firstly, he tried to reform jury selection which had switched from Senators to Equestrians
but was now being used to extort tax payers and launch vexatious lawsuits against
Senators. This alienated the Equites.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">He then tried to help the poor in the model of previous
reformers, which alienated the Senate. And he wanted to extend the full benefits of Roman citizenship to the
Latins which alienated the rest of the Romans.</p><p class="Myparagraph">Later historians have viewed his motivation as more
genuine, but at the time he was seen as trying to ‘buy’ a massive support base
by introducing new citizens.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">He was killed by an unknown assassin which triggered the ‘<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">B</span><span lang="LA" style="mso-ansi-language: LA;">ellum </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">S</span><span lang="LA" style="mso-ansi-language: LA;">ociale</span><span lang="LA" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">(</span>91 to 87 BC) usually mistranslated as
the ‘<b>Social War’</b>, during which many previous Italian Roman allies rose
in revolt at entrenched Roman selfish interests.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead of blaming
itself, the Senate blamed Drusus and set up a tribunal to try many of his
supporters for sedition. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Sulpicius,
Drusus’ successor, defects to the Populares</b><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">If Drusus was accused of being opportunist, he was nothing
to Publius <b>Sulpicius</b> Rufus, an Equites, who was second in Drusus’s
circle and was elected Plebian tribune in <span class="mw-headline">89 BC).</span>
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Sulpicius</b> was not wealthy. The usual bribes left him
with massive debts. Old <b>Gaius Marius </b>offered to clear his debts if he could
somehow get him appointed to lead the army against Mithridates. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQtep7jGxeFtOWlCfJlwHLZRHdd5QSORXdj4wB8uvrMIiJEm3fVDREDTvyJ014dGbm8JH4YvSzhA0V4pHEY2dE1BxyYrUMarWzTBaufLyXSVo5lUfxxjLPUrHrr7aYxLvj2AAAO907y9Yv/s799/800px-PonticKingdom.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="668" data-original-width="799" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQtep7jGxeFtOWlCfJlwHLZRHdd5QSORXdj4wB8uvrMIiJEm3fVDREDTvyJ014dGbm8JH4YvSzhA0V4pHEY2dE1BxyYrUMarWzTBaufLyXSVo5lUfxxjLPUrHrr7aYxLvj2AAAO907y9Yv/s320/800px-PonticKingdom.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kingdom of Pontos before entering Greece </td></tr></tbody></table>Mithridates, king of Pontos, had rapidly turned his modest kingdom
into an empire at the expense of Roman interests (while Rome was distracted
elsewhere and was unpopular in the East due to the extortionate tax collectors).<o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Sulla, </b>the<b> </b>senior consul and an Optimate, had
already been appointed to lead this lucrative campaign but was near Naples
mopping up after the Social War. The Italians had been promised citizenship
during the Social War, and Marius and Sulpicius introduced a bill to rapidly bring
this into law. The Optimates were still determinedly opposed and got <b>Sulla</b>
to declare an emergency suspension of business. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In an ensuing bloody riot, the two consuls had to withdraw
the order, fearing for their lives. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Sulla then returned to Nola near Naples. While he was
away, <b>Sulpicius</b> used his control of the popular assembly to get Marius
appointed to the lead the army instead of Sulla. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">He then used the popular Assembly to forcefully eject his
opponents from the Senate.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Sulla’s first
civil war, and the rise of the power of the Army<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Sulla appealed to his loyal troops who were outraged. He was
able to leave one legion at Nola (near Naples) and take the other five to march
to Rome (88 BC) against little opposition. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">No General had ever crossed the city limits armed before.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">For the first time, the legions didn’t demonstrate
absolute loyalty to the Republic. Any who could win the hearts and minds of the
legions could dominate Rome.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The Optimates
gain a shaky control over Rome<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Sulla was popular with his troops and the Senate, but the
Optimates had lost any support they might
have had amongst the common people of Rome, and especially the Italians. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It didn’t help that the recent Social War had triggered a
credit and loan crisis in Rome while Mithridates’ campaigns were depriving Rome
of taxes from the East. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">When two new consuls were elected, one, <b>Lucius
Cornelius Cinna, </b>turned on Sulla. Presumably with support from the Plebian
tribunes, he <span class="hgkelc">brought charges against him. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">Sulla departed with his legions to
fight against </span>Mithridates<span class="hgkelc">. While he was out of Rome,
he couldn’t be prosecuted, but this left the other consul, Octavius</span> and
the Senate, to defend against Cinna and his new allies. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There was a massive street fight in the Forum between the
two factions and Cinna was stripped of his title and exiled (illegally).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The Populares and
Italian allies fight back<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In exile, Cinna joined with the Italians, Marius and an
especially clever general called <b>Sertorius. </b>They raised an army and
forced Rome’s surrender. Cinna and Marius became consuls but old Marius died
shortly after. Cinna had Octavius and a few political opponents killed and
others exiled but reports of a widespread blood bath and tyranny were likely exaggerated by Cinna’s enemies.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The People
versus the Legions <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Populares may have strong support amongst the Plebs, the
Italians, the provenances and some Legions (especially those that had fought on the rebel side in
the Social War) but this did not translate into widespread support within the
army.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The commanders were by and large taken from the Roman aristocracy
and the rank and file were loyal to them, making the army largely conservative.
Sulla was a darling of the legions, and he (unlike the Populares) was more than happy to let his
troops plunder any town that resisted him, even Italian towns, and plunder was something very greatly desired by Roman soldiers.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Armies raised by the Populares were plagued by mass
defections. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The first army sent against Sulla eventually defected to
Sulla (85 BC). Cinna raised another army (84 BC) but was murdered by his own
troops. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In the spring of 83 BC Sulla landed his army in southern
Italy, triggering another major civil war. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sulla and his allies acted brutally, sacking
any towns that resisted them and slaughtering their populations. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the Optimates
looked like losing a message was sent back to Rome. A meeting of the Senate was
called and, in an unprecedented act of sacrilege, assassins were brought in to cut
down any marked senators who might support Sulla. The chief priest of Rome was
murdered in the Temple of Vesta itself.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Sulla’s reign of
Terror<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Sulla won and declared himself dictator. Until his resignations
(81 BC) he initiated a massive reign of terror nominating against his opponents calling them ‘enemies of the state’. He used 'proscription' executing them and seizing all their property. He barred their impoverished descendants
from holding public office and forbid their daughters (and widows) from
marrying. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">At first this was to remove political opponents, soon it used
simply to seize land and property and enrich him and his followers. 9,000
leading Romans were murdered. He also removed most of the powers of the Plebian
council and the Plebian tribunes and expanded the senate in power, and doubled
its size by an infusion of wealthy Equites.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>After Sulla<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Most of the reforms of Sulla barely lasted a couple of
decades but the massacres and prohibitions of this period accelerated the moral
rot at the heart of the Republic. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It was not only the use of the legions, and the unprecedented
chaos. He and his opponents had murdered Rome’s best leaders.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All men of principle, those that supported
the law, had been amongst the first to be purged by either side. There were massive rewards given
to the unscrupulous. <span class="q-box"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The Collapse of
the Republic (59–44 BC)<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It was the beginning of the end when Julius Caesar was
elected consul in 59 BC with the help of Crassus and Pompey.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq5WWwKWHxFPv6DYI1ZI6ePPA26oegaE2d8Bv0wfDMX_wTjEPGFDjB0RIbf7fz9BhNYWts6BrnsQPm0EfcbKcMNGh5PZrN55tMe7z0ErWbflUaz47wnUZibLXd8v3DUOFspTrgtTRovz49/s1000/Julius+Ceasar.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1000" data-original-width="800" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq5WWwKWHxFPv6DYI1ZI6ePPA26oegaE2d8Bv0wfDMX_wTjEPGFDjB0RIbf7fz9BhNYWts6BrnsQPm0EfcbKcMNGh5PZrN55tMe7z0ErWbflUaz47wnUZibLXd8v3DUOFspTrgtTRovz49/w160-h200/Julius+Ceasar.jpg" width="160" /></a></div><p class="Myparagraph">Crassus was the general that defeated Spartacus and had
become the richest man in Rome through real estate. Pompey (known as<b> </b>Pompey
the Great) was only forty-five and the greatest general of his time. He was
almost equally as wealthy as Crassus, through conquest, and had returned for
his third and greatest triumph after the final Mithridatic war. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Back in Rome, Pompey had found his wishes to settle
veterans thwarted and his treaties disavowed by a jealous senate. He had previously squabbled with
Crassus but Julius Caesar was an arch negotiator and a long-term supporter of
both men. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Julius Caesar was already a distinguished soldier and, while
as governor of Roman Spain, had conquered two local tribes. While he was the head of a Patrician family, he had no
reason to love the Optimates.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">He was a nephew of <span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Gaius Marius</span>,
who, with Cinna, had fought against Sulla. Caesar had also married Cinna's daughter, Cornelia. During Sulla’s purges he was stripped of his family fortune,
Cornelia’s dowry and an earlier priesthood (Jupiter). He was only barely able to keep his life. </p><p class="Myparagraph">He was told to
divorce Cornelia but he angrily refused.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">To make ends meet, Caesar was forced to became a lawyer where he showed considerable skill but he remained so heavily in debt that he
couldn’t begin his political and military career until becoming a client of
Crassus (in everything but name). </p><p class="Myparagraph">The informal alliance of these three is sometimes called the
First Triumvirate. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Pompey later married Julius Caesar’s daughter.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It was a bitterly fought election and his co-consul,
Bibulus, vowed to block any of Caesar’s populist reforms. Caesar attempted
persuasion at first but, in the end, Pompey flooded the streets with veterans,
silencing the Optimate opposition and allowing Caesar to use the popular
assembly to push his agenda. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Crassus obtained <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">lucrative tax
collecting contracts</span></span>. Crassus and Pompey remained in control of
politics in Rome while Caesar, after his one year term as consul, was given command
over <span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Gaul</span>
and <span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Illyria</span>
for five years, allowing him to launch his Conquest of Gaul. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Accounts of how amicable the First Triumvirate continued to
be varied considerably but around 56 BC Pompey and Crassus, as consuls,
extended Caesar’s governorship for another five years. Pompey received governorship
of <span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Hispania</span>,
and Crassus of <span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Syria</span><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">.</span></span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">During Caesar’s famous conquest of Gaul, one version was
that he subjugated 300 tribes, and destroyed 800 cities, killed a million
people and gained so much plunder that the price of gold briefly dropped in
Rome. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Caesar was now not only a war hero and a darling of the people, he was a wealthy and could afford bribes. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>End of the
alliance<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In September 54 BC Caesar’s daughter, Pompey’s wife, died giving
birth to a girl who also died soon after. To secure Pompey, Caesar offered his
great-niece in marriage but Pompey refused. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Soon after, Crassus was killed leading an ill-fated
expedition against the Parthians (May 53 BC). The only people binding Pompey to
Caesar were now dead.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">What turned Pompey against Caesar is unclear. He was a proud
and ambitious man and saw Caesar as his main rival. He was also the only member of
the Triumvirate left in Rome and securing his power base in the Senate meant
forming alliances with the Optimates<i>. <o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In this, he was successful. In 52 BC as political violence got out
of hand, he was elected as the sole consul (just one step short of a dictatorship).</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There had been calls for Caesar to be recalled, and for
Caesar and Pompey to give up their legions, but it didn’t come to a head until
Caesar’s (unusual ten year) proconsular term came to an end in 50 BC. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">His enemies began senate proceedings to try him for war
crimes (in his conquest of Gaul) and his behaviour while a consul (in
59 BC). While he was a proconsul (governor) and out of Rome, he
was immune to prosecution.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Marcus Anthonius (Mark Anthony), long term supporter of
Caesar and a plebian tribune, tried to block the prosecution, but was threatened
with violence. The senate then passed a state of emergency and demanded Caesar
disband his army and return to Rome to face charges. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Mark Anthony and several of Caesar’s supporters fled to warn
him.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYesEY9F3QW_qNazzBLfhwNupKl_V47dzBhPi6QuQnQPKUiYJJsb_PBYiigm964ClqzKmbjeVZGWZkO6PN8q3OoYzf2putuFiT5i3m-DfeHPPQrXuylDRNzhvoXL50eC1RBlNrCVyzF_Ej/s339/LocationRubicon.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="290" data-original-width="339" height="171" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYesEY9F3QW_qNazzBLfhwNupKl_V47dzBhPi6QuQnQPKUiYJJsb_PBYiigm964ClqzKmbjeVZGWZkO6PN8q3OoYzf2putuFiT5i3m-DfeHPPQrXuylDRNzhvoXL50eC1RBlNrCVyzF_Ej/w200-h171/LocationRubicon.png" width="200" /></a></div><p class="Myparagraph">Caesar was camped on the banks of the Rubicon in northern
Italy, the southern-most limits of his territory. He crossed the Rubicon with
the thirteenth legion, on January 10 triggering what would be a hard-fought civil
war (49–45 BC).<br /></p><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" style="border-bottom: 1px solid rgb(162, 169, 177); line-height: 1.3; margin: 0px 0px 0.25em; overflow: visible; padding: 0px;"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnoBlu-H-ZecAlEeblLrEzlCcql-J2oqsDY9Y2B01xO0vR7lnpisdm6NK-93M_5y1MA-lUHdqRWRkAP13aRG-_BeslwlH5jObfszW1oyl7w9f76-3ypN1Hjgw112NgfuSjp8sJI1U25wd5/s800/Death_of_Julius_Caesar_2.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="520" data-original-width="800" height="130" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnoBlu-H-ZecAlEeblLrEzlCcql-J2oqsDY9Y2B01xO0vR7lnpisdm6NK-93M_5y1MA-lUHdqRWRkAP13aRG-_BeslwlH5jObfszW1oyl7w9f76-3ypN1Hjgw112NgfuSjp8sJI1U25wd5/w200-h130/Death_of_Julius_Caesar_2.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Assassination of Caesar , Holmes Sullivan </span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph" style="font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;">At the end of the war Pompey was dead, Caesar victorious, and declared
dictator for life. Ironically, it was a position he held only for a little over a month. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><br />On the
Ides of March, Caesar was stabbed to death by a mob of senators in the senate, where
he had to leave his body guards outside.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal; text-align: center;"><b><span style="font-size: small;">After the
Republic 44- 27 BC<o:p></o:p></span></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;">The Roman Republic was over in everything but name. </span><span style="font-size: small;">Julius Caesar was deified, literally.</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;">Rome was now ruled by a military dictatorship of three. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span>Mark Antony and a man called Lepidus divided up Roman
territories between them. </span><span>They reintroduced proscription and property seizures.</span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Octavian, only
eighteen and Julius Caesar’s heir, was very a junior partner to these other
two.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="font-family: "Linux Libertine", Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Except that, while Mark Anthony was fighting Brutus and Cassius in Greece,
and Lepidus was attempting to dislodge a very stubborn son of Pompey from
Sicily, Octavian had his own legions and was able to cement his position as Caesar’s
heir in Rome.</span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglf-cPsSdi6RK426metqdGVLXEfnVJWkD0eFLAIsfOykynsX8PAHIYfVq76-OhYL7wyBsFTPxSi_3n0iQkJyjsc-6lAHDro8ldELXUAdFodHhDC5oWT8UMJuOrDn8XBuPF9xA1axic1a0-/s375/250px-Statue-Augustus.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="250" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglf-cPsSdi6RK426metqdGVLXEfnVJWkD0eFLAIsfOykynsX8PAHIYfVq76-OhYL7wyBsFTPxSi_3n0iQkJyjsc-6lAHDro8ldELXUAdFodHhDC5oWT8UMJuOrDn8XBuPF9xA1axic1a0-/w133-h200/250px-Statue-Augustus.jpg" width="133" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Augustus</span></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Linux Libertine, Georgia, Times, serif;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">He eventually was able to strip Lepidus of all power and then win
a civil war against Mark Anthony (</span><span style="font-weight: 400;">joined</span><span style="font-weight: normal;"> by Caesar’s previous lover, Cleopatra), to
become Rome’s first emperor in 27 BC.</span></span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">I hope you have enjoyed this blog on the Late Roman Republic. I also write Epic Fantasy set in ancient times. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span>Please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;"><span style="line-height: 18px;">My first book : 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></span></p><div><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /></span><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; font-weight: normal;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></span></div></div><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Linux Libertine, Georgia, Times, serif; font-weight: normal;"><span></span></span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><br style="font-size: medium; font-weight: 400;" /></p></h1>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-64538774941479688252021-05-09T18:52:00.030-07:002021-06-23T18:26:46.349-07:00The Fall of the Roman Republic 2, Spoilt by Success<p style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span> </p><p style="text-align: center;"><b>Part 2 of 3, the Middle Republican period </b></p><p>The Early Roman Republican Period ends in 264 BC with Rome gaining mastery over all but the northern-most part of Continental Italy. It was then on the verge of going to war against Carthage in Sicily (which marked the beginning of the Middle Republican Period).</p><p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPDIYCogxo4_M892fhNraEF45lyw_HZuFDiHfkySnQzRurrnAWiTBiECeHrR4bvh3lls6cvhKigASZ0k4CXoyn5CBGbmTWKiMw9r0XxNcs_jJTAOEYRW2P3HLhRz6HMzsiILkgkkLg8-f-/s800/First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="473" data-original-width="800" height="118" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPDIYCogxo4_M892fhNraEF45lyw_HZuFDiHfkySnQzRurrnAWiTBiECeHrR4bvh3lls6cvhKigASZ0k4CXoyn5CBGbmTWKiMw9r0XxNcs_jJTAOEYRW2P3HLhRz6HMzsiILkgkkLg8-f-/w200-h118/First_Punic_War_264_BC_v3.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">First Punic War</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><p class="Myparagraph">By the end of the Middle Republican period, Rome was
already the greatest Empire of its time. It faced no credible external threat
to its safety, and was poised for ever greater glory.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Embassies from small independent towns were frequently
arriving before the Senate to swear allegiance to Rome, offer expensive gifts
or ask Rome to mediate in disputes. The Senate had increasingly began dictating
policy to allies and neighbours. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome’s merchants received an enormous windfall from the subjugation
of the Greeks and the destruction of Carthage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>People and cheap goods flooded into Rome, including grain from Sicily
and northern Africa, some as tribute. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Slaves were everywhere, building wealth for Rome’s rich, while
cultured Greek slaves tutored their children. The din of new construction was
constant as the city became adorned with elaborate new temples, gymnasia,
baths, and palaces.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">And yet, within a hundred years, the Republic had fallen. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">What eventually brought the Republic to its knees was not
an external threat. Deep in the heart of the Republic which had been founded on
ideals of austerity, rule by consensus, devotion to honour and service to the
Republic something was dying.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The beginning of the end was not marked by another
military triumph or even a defeat. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It was the murder of a single man (along with many of his
followers). Tiberius Gracchus, (132 BC) was murdered for trying to help Rome’s
poor and fighting the entrenched self interest and corruption of many Senators.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs35w_KVEls6nEssmuCNYlh4FexSZ1H9R_Nbu9eJuJFpuyygZyYfEKdDb5FDElCspJCl3s1C32XMGMxICSrZi-hDObTW_ZQMfbuiXB6Pa0UpMgZJfVb0-I7pTifY4EBPijUlmMoCS_As7r/s758/F%25C3%25A9lix_Auvray_Caio_Gracco.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="512" data-original-width="758" height="135" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjs35w_KVEls6nEssmuCNYlh4FexSZ1H9R_Nbu9eJuJFpuyygZyYfEKdDb5FDElCspJCl3s1C32XMGMxICSrZi-hDObTW_ZQMfbuiXB6Pa0UpMgZJfVb0-I7pTifY4EBPijUlmMoCS_As7r/w200-h135/F%25C3%25A9lix_Auvray_Caio_Gracco.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Murder of Tiberius's brother</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><p class="Myparagraph">His death was the first open bloodshed in Roman politics
in nearly four centuries and it was followed by a descent<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>into the use of force and murder in politics.
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It showed that self interest, squabbling and corruption meant
the Senate was unable to respond effectually to the internal problems of Rome's
‘Empire’ and it led to the civil wars that marked the final stages of the Republic.
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Ongoing Military Triumphs<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Roman’s main rivals at the start of the second Punic
war. <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The second Punic war was initiated by Hannibal (218 BC) and Rome came close to losing it, but Rome's position at the start of the war soon after the finish illustrates
just how far Rome came by the end of the middle period.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvDMltAPIcNngQ3nhVh33aGxkjyB_0JcicvblRK12H40PTZPFyUpQEL8n92LpQUizzluQ0OColQ6BLnfOqzLrweIc_bpa23RKy88jPV2_FWoOOdkEmHcOGqqxk4Ivt6WIQfKY_zK8M-qqr/s600/Hannibal+crossing+the+alps.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="520" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvDMltAPIcNngQ3nhVh33aGxkjyB_0JcicvblRK12H40PTZPFyUpQEL8n92LpQUizzluQ0OColQ6BLnfOqzLrweIc_bpa23RKy88jPV2_FWoOOdkEmHcOGqqxk4Ivt6WIQfKY_zK8M-qqr/w173-h200/Hannibal+crossing+the+alps.jpg" width="173" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Hannibal crossing the alps</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph">At the start, Rome’s main rival empires were Carthage (which had expanded in Iberia) and the three inheritors of Alexander the Great’s
empire: the Seleucid Empire (modern-day Turkey to India), Ptolemaic Egypt (with
its territories in Syria and coastal Greece and Turkey) and Macedon (which
dominated much of Greece). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Like the first Punic war, the second Punic war was one of
the toughest Rome ever faced. For a long time Rome had no answer to Hannibal’s
main army in Italy, raising large legions that suffering cataclysmic defeat
after defeat. Hannibal managed to occupy a large part of southern Italy for 15
years, though he could not break Rome’s indomitable spirit.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">All Rome could seem to do was to send smaller
forces to attack Carthaginian captured territories and allies in Italy. It
couldn’t face Hannibal front-on in Italy so went behind him<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>to disrupt his conquered territory and supply
routes. It was a grueling war of attrition and the cost to Italy was
appalling. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It was really only when Roman forces went even further behind,
to attack Gaul (and later northern Africa) that they were able to weaken his
position.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">By the end of the Middle Republican period, Macedon as an
independent kingdom was no more (168 BC). Carthage had been goaded into a third
war and was now completely destroyed (133 BC) and the few survivors sold into
slavery.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvn3hxKnKaaC4EFe2-gHdz1v7na1n9uzWENifp8fPh1ov82S071zYBnUD2ynNk2Ze9A4-mlws2VIqI5OJBEOcqE7lY276e2Vyu9fh2G67qWUz0jB_dvX36Nh7gFCO6R8-HzLYonCP02_yK/s750/Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="599" data-original-width="750" height="160" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjvn3hxKnKaaC4EFe2-gHdz1v7na1n9uzWENifp8fPh1ov82S071zYBnUD2ynNk2Ze9A4-mlws2VIqI5OJBEOcqE7lY276e2Vyu9fh2G67qWUz0jB_dvX36Nh7gFCO6R8-HzLYonCP02_yK/w200-h160/Macedonia_and_the_Aegean_World_c.200.png" width="200" /></a></div><p></p><p class="Myparagraph">The Greek Aetolian League had earlier been brought to heel
and the Achaean league was crushed in the same year as the destruction of
Carthage, with Corinth also completely destroyed. Macedonia, Greece and the former Carthaginian territories had been divided into Roman
provinces, administered by Roman governors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The military victories and Rome’s ability to rise from
adversity were incredible but, for the moment, we are focusing on the early Roman
moral ideals and whether they were weakening. Here we will look at the Roman
concept of justice in war. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It is difficult to judge the early Republic, because it
was so long ago and the historical record is so uncertain. On the other hand,
there is plenty of evidence that the early Republican Romans, especially their
ruling classes, treated their ‘ <i>mos maiorum’</i> (ancestral customs and
honour) very seriously.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">This system wasn’t perfect, Rome was constantly
looking for excuses to go to war that would fit within the rules they believed
were lay down by their ancestors and Gods. Still, the prevailing culture
moderated the extremes of militaristic, greedy or self-serving behaviour. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Justice in war and peace<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The early Romans believed in ‘<span class="hgkelc">jus ad
bellum’, or ‘justice in making war’, as mandated by both their ancestors and
Gods. There was also justice in the treatment of the defeated and of allies. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">Conquered people were given a treaty to
sign, where they had to acknowledge Roman leadership, pay taxes, and supply
soldiers. They were allowed to keep their own customs, money, and local
government. The yolk of Roman rule was (at first) tolerable and the resolute
loyalty to Rome of the other Latin cities (for example) was one of the only
things that saved it in the second Punic war.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">If a city surrendered ‘before the ram
touched the wall’ (or unconditionally, trusting in Romans to treat the city honourably)
they were treated well. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">Of course, those that didn’t surrender
or rebelled later faced harsh punishment. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">These ideals didn’t abruptly disappear,
especially amongst the Patricians and the somewhat conservative Senate, but there
were signs they were weakening over time. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">Even towards the end of the Early
Republic the event that triggered the first Samnite war was a sign that Roman
greed could triumph over fair treatment of an ally.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc"><b>Rome and the first Punic War.<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">This is even more evident in the Punic
wars.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome had a long history of peace with Carthage dating back
to the start of the Roman Republic. In a 303 BC treaty, Rome agreed not to
enter Sicily and in <span class="mw-headline">279 BC they had both signed a
mutual aid pact (against Pyrrhus), offering each other military assistance if
needed. Carthage did supply material to the Romans and ferried a few of its
troops.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline"><b>Carthage an economic superpower<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline">Carthage was much less militarily </span>aggressive than Rome.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline">If Rome was a military super
power, Carthage was an economic super power and with Carthage's innovative agricultural techniques it, like Egypt, was a major
producer of grain and other goods.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline">Its senate, unlike the Roman one, was
not solely dominated by land owning nobles and their military class. There was
representatives of the clever Carthaginian/ Phoenician merchants. Carthage was
most happy to establish hegemony over maritime trading cities, and often did
not follow this up with land expansion. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline">Wars, especially extended wars,
were bad for business. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline">The Carthaginian wars with the
Greeks in Sicily were mostly Carthaginians defending themselves (and others)
from the more aggressive Dorian Greeks (related to Spartans) and did not
lead to Carthaginian conquest of Sicily.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline">Most Carthaginian land conquest
(up to the first Carthaginian war) was in northern Africa, around Carthage itself.
It was a series of loosely held client kingdoms populated by Numidians and this made Carthaginian control vulnerable. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline">In the last war with Carthage
(which Syracuse initiated) Syracuse had broken a siege of its city by sending
an army into northern Africa and threatening Carthage (310 BC) in a way similar
to what the Romans did later. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline">Carthaginian armies employed a lot
of mercenaries and they were sometimes in competition with Carthaginian
military leaders. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline"><b>Request for Roman intervention,
first Punic War </b></span><span class="hgkelc"><b>(</b></span><span class="eq0j8"><b>264
BC)</b></span><span class="hgkelc"><b>.</b> </span><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The only request for Roman intervention in
Sicily came from a group of displaced Italian mercenaries who had taken over
the town of </span>Messana twenty years before. They had slaughtered the locals
after being welcomed into the city (which was a departure port in the journey
back to Italy).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then they turned to
piracy and land raiding, getting progressively more destructive.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Syracuse had a treaty that had the city in the
Carthaginian sphere of influence. The circumstances are far from clear but (Sicilian)
Greek city of Syracuse and the Carthaginians (now allies) had been forced to
move against them.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There <span class="hgkelc">was no ‘jus ad bellum’ for Rome joining
this war on the pirate’s side. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">In fact, the </span>Roman Senate were
steadfast in their refusal to allow Rome to be involved in such an unjust war.
It was the ambitious consul, Appius Claudius Caudex, with dreams of glory and
loot, that eventually took it directly to the people’s assembly, bypassing the
Senate. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">He promised the people great booty and pointed out the
strategic advantages of a toe-hold in Sicily. Greed and military ambition triumphed over Roman
honour, and Caudex got to lead an army into Sicily.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>A long and bitter war<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Caudex had badly underestimated the stubborn
Carthaginians, the difficulty of defeating their navy and the difficulty
fighting a land war in rugged Sicily. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">At 23 years, the first Punic war was the longest
continuous conflict, and greatest naval war in antiquity. It resulted in huge
casualties and losses, effectively bankrupting both republics. Eventually Rome
forced Carthage to sign the Treaty of Lutatius in 241 BC.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Treatment of Carthage in defeat<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">After the first Punic war, Carthage faced a series of
rebellions in its territories, mainly from foreign mercenaries, some of whom it
had struggled to pay. This included northern Africa. Rome was tolerant as Carthage retook
her territories in Northern Africa but Romans were greedily eyeing Sardinia. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In Sardinia,<span> </span>Carthage was having trouble displacing a group of rebels
until the ‘local’ coastal (pro- Carthaginian) cities rose up and forced them out. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Some of the rebels fled to Italy and appealed for Roman help. The Romans had
tried to invade Sardinia unsuccessfully during the war. Now (<span class="hgkelc">238 BC), they used this as a pretext to send an occupation force in
a clear v</span>iolation of the treaty signed only three years or so before. Carthage
had held the island for three hundred years. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Carthaginians
sent a delegation to Rome protesting the violation of the treaty and explaining
they were already preparing their second expedition to relieve the island. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Roman Senate (in an action universally condemned by
modern historians) said that they had been invited into Sardinia, so this was all
Roman territory now. They said even preparing an expedition to the island
was an act of war against Rome, and they demanded an amendment to the treaty
that gave them Sardinia and Corsica. To add insult to injury, they demanded an
additional 1,200-talent indemnity.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Carthage was bankrupt ,defeated by Rome and had just
fought a long campaign to recapture Northern Africa . They were forced to capitulate.
This cemented the intense hatred towards the Romans and inevitably led to the
second Punic war.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjErkX0q9_YmeFTja0qSdvdC2CcIFEWVuKoA-h3ld_jvui0mnZ7IfAphUHNrSt3wbrnhCp3TQw6wOHF99kSoXDy-SooUlhyq65mQEOfGEeCDhYNUqp-I7EZrl1sXSqIkri6lFBMSgZT86Yy/s800/First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="473" data-original-width="800" height="118" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjErkX0q9_YmeFTja0qSdvdC2CcIFEWVuKoA-h3ld_jvui0mnZ7IfAphUHNrSt3wbrnhCp3TQw6wOHF99kSoXDy-SooUlhyq65mQEOfGEeCDhYNUqp-I7EZrl1sXSqIkri6lFBMSgZT86Yy/w200-h118/First_Punic_War_237_BC.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Addition of Sardinia and Corsica</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph">This (and the long war against its own mercenaries)
shifted the balance of power in the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Carthaginian
senate towards its military leaders and allowed Hannibal’s family to control
Carthage’s expansion in Spain.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Fifty years after Hannibal's war, Rome used a pretext to
force Carthage into a third cruel war and finally destroy it. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Carthage was barred
from defending herself without Roman permission. Masinissa, educated in
Carthage, had become king of all the Numidians and was seen as a staunch Roman
ally. He had significantly aided the Roman final victory against Carthage in the
second Punic war. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It is said that he was keen to pick off chunks of
Carthaginian territory and the Romans were happy to see Carthage weakened further and often mediated unfairly against their old enemy. </p><p class="Myparagraph">When
Cato the Elder, a veteran of the second Punic war (previously known for his terrible brutality and conspicuous cruelty) arrived (152 BC) to mediate in yet another dispute, the Carthaginians
rejected him. They were unlikely to get a sympathetic hearing from Cato. He, for his part, was offended by this and outraged that the city (while militarily powerless) had made a mercantile-led recovery.
He loudly and repeatedly demanded it be destroyed.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">This emboldened Masinissa (though now elderly) who launched a massive campaign
(150 BC) with his Numidian cavalry throughout Carthage’s remaining territory, attacking
multiple towns. He now controlled 50 % of Carthaginian territory and was besieging Oroscopa.</p><p class="Myparagraph"> It was 50 years since the end of the last war and the Carthaginians had already repaid the war indemnity with Rome. Some in Carthage felt the treaty should no longer apply. They raised an army to try to unsuccessfully try to defend themselves against the Numidians.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome landed an army not long after. At first they fooled the Carthaginians into believing a settlement was possible, but then gave a list of impossible and escalating demands, many of which Carthage met (like disarming) but the Romans really wanted to utterly destroy Carthage, the city, the people, its history and its culture. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Despite dogged and clever resistance, this was achieved in 146
BC, in an act that history Professors like Naimark and Kiernan claim was genocide. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhd0bE1Q_cb0lY3Noq6Vaw4BWYhUNDL0dkkDV8ezBqT8KBsLiqnOzlpn1FkcSPuRA9BE-Sq1lP2yjEXC3aj4yyL9b8PSxSBbD2oz77xORzbqn8G_2_JeNiPB29BmFpX_5LmVF_P4-esJbyk/s550/Genocide+a+world+history.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="550" data-original-width="364" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhd0bE1Q_cb0lY3Noq6Vaw4BWYhUNDL0dkkDV8ezBqT8KBsLiqnOzlpn1FkcSPuRA9BE-Sq1lP2yjEXC3aj4yyL9b8PSxSBbD2oz77xORzbqn8G_2_JeNiPB29BmFpX_5LmVF_P4-esJbyk/w133-h200/Genocide+a+world+history.jpg" width="133" /></a></div><p class="Myparagraph">A little later in the same year, 146 BC Rome defeated a
rebellion in the Achaean league (which controlled most of the Greek Peloponnese).
Corinth was sacked and burnt to the ground, those who had not fled were killed
and enslaved, and its artwork plundered. The Greek mainland became a province,
like Macedonian provinces before it.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The situation with Achaean League was a little more
complicated than one with Carthage. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The League apparently flirted with joining the Macedonians
in their third war against Rome. Rome took thousands of hostages to ensure
their good behaviour but later (perhaps to teach them a lesson) was slow to release them despite five embassies
sent to Rome.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome then
began to micro-manage the affairs of the League. When internal problems caused
some members (including Sparta) to want to break away, Rome threaten to break up
the League. Reducing the power of the League would have made Rome’s job easier
but the suggestion incensed the Greeks on top of many prior provocations.</p><p class="Myparagraph">When the League assembled a second force to punish Sparta they knew they would be fighting Rome, and soon Rome sent two armies against them.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipllLnCA3DZo9fsJB66c9fn9ww9QCd-ztWIJQ50Wchz4bKiasyfXBbWk_gJ5Mb4xM0McniSTL06Y4gYOYnb3WKu1MnQfSTG6qYrRQvz53vidDkDyX2aYlVsPYlGrh1YcLpj9HAcf6nIbxK/s800/800px-Tony_robert-fleury%252C_l%2527ultimo_giorno_di_corinto%252C_ante_1870.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="549" data-original-width="800" height="138" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipllLnCA3DZo9fsJB66c9fn9ww9QCd-ztWIJQ50Wchz4bKiasyfXBbWk_gJ5Mb4xM0McniSTL06Y4gYOYnb3WKu1MnQfSTG6qYrRQvz53vidDkDyX2aYlVsPYlGrh1YcLpj9HAcf6nIbxK/w200-h138/800px-Tony_robert-fleury%252C_l%2527ultimo_giorno_di_corinto%252C_ante_1870.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Destruction of Corinth, Allom</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph">The treatment of Carthage especially, but also Corinth, was shameful. Rome's greed and arrogance was no longer bound by the rules of justice in war and peace. It could no longer be trusted to be fair to those it defeated or respect treaties it had signed. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Abuse of allies<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Senate did hear cases of allies abused and neutral
tribes attacked by Romans in campaigns. While they ordered restitution, none of
the commanders were prosecuted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p><p class="Myparagraph">The
Senate’s control over the military was weakening and Roman morality was in decline..</p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Changes within
Rome, and the moral decline<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Wealth<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The deluge of wealth pouring into Rome, not just from tribute
and taxes but from plunder is hard to comprehend. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">When Lucius Aemilius Paullus defeated Macedonia in the
third Macedonia war, his triumphant procession took three days to complete. The
first day was hardly long enough to allow the priceless works of plundered art,
carried on 250 wagons. The next day featured cart upon cart of fine arms and
armour, 2,250 talents of silver carried in large pots by some 3,000 men. The
third displayed 231 talents of gold, 400 gold wreaths, and finally the enslaved
royal family. And this was just what he gave to the Roman treasury. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome demanded increasing indemnities from anyone who
opposed her will. Philip II of Macedon, for example, was made to pay 1,000
talents of silver at the conclusion of the second Macedonian war. By the time
they defeated the Seleucid ruler Antiochus III (in 188 BC), he was forced to
pay a ruinous 15,000 talents. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">All this plunder challenged previous austere Roman morality, and became a problem when Rome was no longer expanding and the plunder was not flowing in. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Rome had become a plunder economy with all the problems that this implies. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Rome, a great city<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Ancient Rome started as one small Latin city-state amongst
many. It would reach 800,000 by 1 AD and reach 1.2 million at its peak (200
AD). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Only the ancient city of Alexandria (Ptolemaic Egypt) rivaled
it in size. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There influx of foreigners as free men, traders, or slaves. Some of these, including freed slaves, became citizens and this engulfed the original Latin culture, especially amongst the man on the
streets. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Foreign Influence<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Romans always admired the Greeks and Greek became the
second most common language. It became the primary language of the Byzantine
Empire and was the written language of the new testament. Roman culture and
education became more and more influenced by Greeks and Greek tutors. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Loss of Rome’s small farmers.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome at first had no standing army and the bulk of her
legions were conscripted from small farmers. Conscripts had to supply their own
equipment, pay a tax to fund the latest war, and sign up for the duration. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Of course, they took their duty to the Republic very
seriously (at first). </p><p class="Myparagraph">If they didn’t, the punishments were severe.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">This ruined some farmers, even when the wars were local
affairs. The first Punic war lasted 23 years and almost bankrupted both Rome
and Carthage and depleted Rome of fighting men. The second Punic war brought
conflict into central Italy and lasted 16 yrs. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Many family farms lay long neglected, waiting for them to return or, worse, become a
burnt-out ruin as conflict rolled over them. Soldiers had to pay many of their own expenses, even later when legends were paid, the pay was poor and (unless there
was a share in plunder) there
were no retirement benefits.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Financial ruin increasingly faced those conscripted into military
service. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">With the conquest of Carthage, cheap grain flooded into
Rome, some as tribute. Small Roman and Latin farmers simply could not compete. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Some even abandoned their farms and moved to the city to avoid
military service.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Recruitment<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In the early part of the second Punic war one estimate has
Rome losing 120,000 men through death or capture in less than two years as they suffered defeat after defeat. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Romans took drastic steps to raise new legions: enrolling
slaves and criminals. The senate repeatedly reduced the minimum wealth
threshold for conscription before the system was abandoned all together (107 BC
under Marius).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Treatment of veterans<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">From 177 BC there was a hiatus in the founding of
‘colonia’ in conquered territories. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">These colonies had been established by veterans and their
families. It was one way a small number could escape the poverty trap. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It’s not clear why the system stopped for a while, some
senators were illegally using this public land for themselves, sometimes only
paying nominal rents. Some of this rented land was seen as part of the family
estate and passed down in inheritance. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>An explosion in the number of Rome’s poor<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Displaced farmers, veterans and impoverished labourers
moved to the city, joining slaves, freed slaves and foreigners. There was a
population explosion in Rome itself, with many plebeians desperately clinging
to survival, while the ‘nobilitis’ (wealthy) lived-in undreamed-of splendour.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Rich landowners<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The massive influx of slave labour allowed wealthy
landowners to build vast estates (latifundia), worked by slaves and run by
managers. They concentrated on more lucrative olives, grapes, and herding. By
law, it was landowners that formed the Senate. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The land owners in the Senate determined who could use
public land (originally taken by conquest). In theory the rights were auctioned
and time-limited. In theory there were legal limits to the amount of public
land each family could use. In practice these laws were ignored.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Some unscrupulous landowners even tapped water from city
aqueducts to improve the quality of previously marginal land. They were happy
to pay the occasional fine while officials looked the other way.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Now the once rich Latin farmland lay neglected and
depopulated, apart from the large estates (latifundia).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">While senators could only be wealthy landowners, the
Equites, some plebeians and foreigners ran the other businesses and employed
slaves. They also became wealthy but did not have the same political representation
landholders had.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Crime<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The early Republican Romans had judicial processes but
citizens were trusted to police themselves inside the city. This broke down
with increasing lawlessness. The city watch was limited to a small number of
slaves (mostly carrying rope buckets sealed with pitch, in case of fire). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There was a religious prohibition on bearing arms in the
central parts of old Rome but it was no longer safe to walk the streets at
night, crime became rife. Most wealthier citizens had stoat doors and employed
guards.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Piracy <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Roman policy of weakening the Eastern Mediterranean
regions caused a surge in piracy. Julius Caesar was captured by pirates early
on in his career.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Slaves <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">With Rome sacking cities and enslaving whole populations,
and the renewed activities of pirates, there was a flood of slaves into Roman
territories. Inevitably, the treatment of slaves deteriorated. Italy had become
a thoroughgoing slave society, with well over one million slaves. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Loss of Roman ‘Mores’.<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Roman Society had always been competitive but, with the
influence coming from the East, austerity and humility gave way to lavish
living and aggressive ostentation. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Patriotism and selfless service to the state, began to be
replaced by self-service and greed.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Corruption<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Corruption became rampart. You could legally pay someone
to vote for you, so it became increasingly routine for rich people to buy their
way into the Senate or a magisterial office. Once they were there, there were
many ways to recoup their money from their position. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Merchants and builders bribed Senators and magistrates to
get building and supply contracts and lobby groups bribed senators to make laws
that they wanted. Favours were traded and cliches strengthened. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Senate began to degenerate: from a consensus-driven
group of elder aristocrats (stepped in the ideal of Roman morality) into
factional groups. Corrupt, selfish, sinister, or fraudulent behaviour became
common. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Rome’s infamous tax collectors<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">After 167 BC Roman citizens living in Rome no longer had
to pay the usual wealth tax but this was not true in conquered
territories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">‘Publicani’ bid at auction for the rights to collect the
wealth tax (<i><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">tributa</span></i>)
in a given location for a given period.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In theory it was an auction, but it often involved bribes to senators.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">If they collected less than what they bid, they made a
loss; if they collected more, that was their profit. The tax collector at the
head of the region would also employ others for a cut of the taxes they
collected and these lower-level tax collectors were open to skimming and
bribery. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The whole system became extortionate and corrupt but, as
only citizens of Rome voted, and they were unaffected or actually profited by
what was happening in the provinces , there was little will to change. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Censors<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Censors, for a time, continued as the moral guardians of
the Senate and Magistrates. In the late Republic the position was sometimes
corrupted to expel opponents, without trial, in great purges. Increasingly, the
prestigious position was unfilled or leading citizens were appointed but found
the office untenable forced to resign within a year of their three year term.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Corruption in the Provinces.</b> With the defeat of the
Carthaginians, Macedonian and then the Greeks , Rome departed from reliance on
treaties to control her growing area of influence to appointing governors,
sometimes with local client kings. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Such Governors were immune to prosecution unless entered
Rome. Corruption and over taxation added to unrest in the provinces, especially
in Spain. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>‘Populares’ vs ‘Optimates’<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Conflict between the poorer Plebs and the rich, especially
the land owning aristocracy, wasn’t anything new. What had changed was the
actual number of Rome’s poor, their<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>increasing desperation and the need to find a resolution.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">‘Populares’ were politicians who appealed to the people. While
‘Optimates’ favoured the power of the Senate. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Neither of these groups were political parties in the
modern sense but most Populares tried to relieve the plight of the poor and
were opposed by a group of corrupt and self interested Senators . <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>The Gracchus brothers and land reform<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Tiberius Gracchus was one of the first people identified
as a ‘Populares’. He<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>came from
impeccable patrician and plebian aristocracy, and was elected plebian tribune
in 133 BC.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqwih9_dxQfT3R3V916AjyC5wx8TJ-l-Ww1_rRkw9_ogC1BwUxckr8nFGuRfVd9Rt6l_3lgnZd_j5cshauDr3u0GspXY-E7ryTFkTTmG0cDqNuUdYqBU2WfjDaeUSPcCSlcv_PiGjhZwta/s120/Eug%25C3%25A9ne_guillaume%252C_i_gracchi%252C_1853.JPG" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="119" data-original-width="120" height="198" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqwih9_dxQfT3R3V916AjyC5wx8TJ-l-Ww1_rRkw9_ogC1BwUxckr8nFGuRfVd9Rt6l_3lgnZd_j5cshauDr3u0GspXY-E7ryTFkTTmG0cDqNuUdYqBU2WfjDaeUSPcCSlcv_PiGjhZwta/w200-h198/Eug%25C3%25A9ne_guillaume%252C_i_gracchi%252C_1853.JPG" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gracchi brothers, Guillaume</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph">He headed a group that proposed enforcing an existing law
that limit the amount of public land that could be rented by large landholders.
The surplus land would be used to supply farms to poor plebeians. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Accounts we have of what happened were written much later
and vary quite markedly in details, but essentially the Senate was resolutely opposed and
did everything it could to block his reforms. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Eventually one group of senators sent an armed mob to kill
Tiberius and many of his (unarmed) supporters. After this , the power of the
Senate was used to send more into exile without trial and some were said to be
executed. A similar fate would visit his brother, Gaius Gracchus, in 121 BC, when
he tried similar reforms.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The stage was set
for the descent into the bloodshed and chaos that marked the late Republic. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><br /></p><p class="Myparagraph">I hope you have enjoyed this blog on the middle Roman Republic. <span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><b>The first book : </b> 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></p><div>You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /><div style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></div></div><p class="Myparagraph"><br /></p>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-50606958532027809112021-03-01T20:03:00.021-08:002021-05-09T21:47:47.384-07:00The Fall (Roman Republic) 1.The Early Republic <p style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span> </p><p style="text-align: center;"><b>Introduction</b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The area that Rome controlled was said to reach a peak in 117 AD, but it was during the Republic <span lang="EN-US">(</span><span class="eq0j8">510 BC till</span><span class="grkhzd"> </span><span class="eq0j8">27 BC) </span>that Rome had its greatest growth, starting from a small fortified town surrounded by powerful neighbours, to become the foremost Western power.</p><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It was also during the Republic that Rome overcome some of
its greatest external challenges. While it lost a few spectacular battles, it always
returned quickly to become stronger than ever.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzxNOr-HLhQux3slQfRQmpltlNBJijNhXHXgIg9FSvax0AJWwmMenL1KHU6GR0U65x8t6Oy-m6Al-1tV-BmcEhv_aQHbwthbnliLcQL6x4vVpjzJ9eq0f8iTAUNBYpqLdQH-SjIJDhd7FI/s1024/death+of+mus%252C+Rubens.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="567" data-original-width="1024" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzxNOr-HLhQux3slQfRQmpltlNBJijNhXHXgIg9FSvax0AJWwmMenL1KHU6GR0U65x8t6Oy-m6Al-1tV-BmcEhv_aQHbwthbnliLcQL6x4vVpjzJ9eq0f8iTAUNBYpqLdQH-SjIJDhd7FI/s320/death+of+mus%252C+Rubens.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Death of Mus, Rubens (sacrificial charge 3rd Samnite war)</td></tr></tbody></table><br /> <o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">By the end of the middle Republican period (133 BC), Rome was continuing to grow in wealth and power. Its arts and building programmes were the envy of the world. It faced no credible external threat and yet something deep in the beating heart of the Republic was dying. </p><p class="Myparagraph">It would cause the Republic to fall (even while Rome was already the greatest city of its time and was continuing to till growing).</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Republics fall can be seen from different aspects, but most agree. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The Republic was ruined by its own success.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">To understand how this could have happened, we need to start with Roman society and culture in the early Roman Republic from its beginning in <span class="acopre">509 BC and then trace it through the middle and late Republican periods. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">I will attempt to be brief, but no discussion of Rome's history would be complete without at least
some mention of her wars.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><em><b><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">The
culture, Early Republic (509 BC -264 BC)</span></b></em><em><b><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-style: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></em></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><em><b><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-style: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></em></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><em><b><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">An
austere society based on an agrarian lifestyle</span></b></em><em><b><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-style: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></em></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Romans, in common with most early people, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> mostly </span>lived on small, self-sufficient farms that surrounded
their town. It was the Roman farmers tilling their rich volcanic soil that
formed the core of their citizen’s militia and Romans were inordinately proud of their agrarian roots.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In the late republic, Cicero declared "of all the
occupations … none is better than agriculture, none more profitable, none
more delightful, none more becoming to a free man." Cato the Elder,
writing slightly later stated that the highest praise for an early Roman was being a “good
husband (and a) good farmer”. He went on to say that “It is from the farming
class that the bravest men and the sturdiest soldiers come.”<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">To the patricians, running a farm was the most worthy
occupation and the success of the farm was a great source of pride. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Farming was the only activity that a senator could engage in, and there were several early legends of great heroes leaving their ploughs (sometimes reluctantly) to lead Rome.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCgZ9WMsmwCKsKH2p1yEQScKhLyZvAtTrQHHvVS310ZaX4UoBPAZNZZbK6LWsdGhJxZY-Ox7a6MoO74WHn3KXR78szntpMua4MdRjB5EmCkmw1Ql2M7vka2TeGLJ-xCJs222gV5joGZUsI/s800/Cincinnatus+leaves+his+plough.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="593" data-original-width="800" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCgZ9WMsmwCKsKH2p1yEQScKhLyZvAtTrQHHvVS310ZaX4UoBPAZNZZbK6LWsdGhJxZY-Ox7a6MoO74WHn3KXR78szntpMua4MdRjB5EmCkmw1Ql2M7vka2TeGLJ-xCJs222gV5joGZUsI/s320/Cincinnatus+leaves+his+plough.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Cincinnatus leaves his plough (Juan Antonio Ribera)</td></tr></tbody></table><br /><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The early Roman character was also one of austerity. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Even in the midst of a military triumph, a victorious general must conduct himself with dignified humility at all times.
The Roman moral code abhorred extravagance, and (during wartimes) laws were
enacted to prevent Roman wives from wearing too much fine clothes and jewellery.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>A militaristic society<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">From the very first, Rome was a militaristic society. <span class="acopre">Serving in the army was both a duty and a privilege. </span>At first it was unpaid. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Poorer men might be drafted in extreme circumstance, and less well armed. This became less over time. Usually soldiers had to have a minimal level of wealth before they could join the army . This allowed them to provide their own equipment and pay for some of their expenses. Not only this, they had to pay an extra tax to fund the war they were fighting in.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="acopre">The militia was central to civic life.
Any patrician wanting a a career in administration had to serve ten years in
the army. The </span>people’s assembly (the <span class="acopre">comitia
centuriata) was organised to parallel the civilian army, with most votes
going to those who would be senior in the army. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="acopre">The greatest achievement any Roman
leader could aspire to was a ‘Roman Triumph’ decked out in a special toga and
riding on a chariot in front of his army, </span>captives, and the spoils of
war (the ceremony followed by prayers to Jupiter, celebrations and games). </p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtYnP-_KNRpMXrVFGKO7UumZkwn0j7NW4Kqnf6WJZ8tiIiLz4Pi3ELDo4dHSUTTzq9EkK5LRXdAh9qLdDrQSnNYSCC9PX_XtYax9DqFzmYdBErij43A2Qlll7mTl8KpnL9w_hRaqkW8Y2Y/s1036/Roman+triumph.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1036" data-original-width="800" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtYnP-_KNRpMXrVFGKO7UumZkwn0j7NW4Kqnf6WJZ8tiIiLz4Pi3ELDo4dHSUTTzq9EkK5LRXdAh9qLdDrQSnNYSCC9PX_XtYax9DqFzmYdBErij43A2Qlll7mTl8KpnL9w_hRaqkW8Y2Y/w246-h320/Roman+triumph.jpg" width="246" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A Roman triumph</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph">As was said, he had
to conduct himself with dignified humility and it was traditional for the troops to call friendly insults to their general (to prevent overweening pride). The triumph
was not just an individual's but the republic’s, dedicated to the gods and ancestors, </p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Cursus honorum<strong><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> (the ‘road to honours’) </span></strong></b></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit;">Embarking on
the path to senior public service started with<i> t</i>en years of
military service</span> (at least as an equestrian, if not a more senior officer) and then gaining election
as a quaestor (treasurer to supervise financial accounts) and then on to more senior positions. At first one had to reach a certain age before being
eligible to advance to the next step. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘Just wars’, the
Roman ideal. </b></p><p class="Myparagraph"><a name="_Hlk64977642">While wars and military glory were an
essential part of the Roman aristocratic ethos, their </a>religion mandated
that they only fight ‘just’ wars.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">This was overseen by special priests of Jupiter called fetiales.
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">‘Ius fetiale’ were the ancient rules for declaring a
‘just’ war and included self-defence, a broken treaty <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>or being called to assist others. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Wars motivated by greed or wrongful treatment of allies
could result in divine displeasure which would be disastrous.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">‘Ius fetiale’ lead to the concept of ‘<span class="hgkelc">jus
ad bellum’, or ‘justice in making war’.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc"><o:p></o:p></span>The accounts of Rome’s early expansion were written hundreds of years later and always cast Rome’s opponents in the role of aggressor so Cicero, writing in the late republic, claimed “our people, through
repeatedly defending their allies, have ended up as master of the world.”</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Roman historian Livy wrote: “there was one nation in
the world which would fight for the liberties of others at its own cost, with
its own labour, and at its own danger. It was even ready to cross the sea to
make sure there was no unjust rule anywhere and that everywhere justice, right,
and law would prevail.”<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Rome, an expansionist society. </b></p><p class="Myparagraph">There is more than a hint of Roman jingoism in the above views. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Some Romans even suggested their civilization and their political system was so superior that they were doing subject nations a favour by invading them, other Romans claimed they were so successful because their cause was always 'just' and favoured by the Gods .</p><p class="Myparagraph">The truth was that
Rome was always looking for an excuse to conquer. In the world they lived in,
it was not hard to find someone ready to attack them , or a border dispute. </p><p class="Myparagraph">If that didn't work, they were happy to be invited in to help in someone else's dispute. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Those on a losing
side soon knew to appeal that they could appeal for Roman help. Of course, there was a cost. An ally<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(or even a distant
city) in need would soon find both itself and it enemies under Roman domination (usually subject to an expertly designed treaty rather than directly ruled at first).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Some, amongst Roman leaders, became adept at bending their own
self-imposed rules. Treaties were sometimes cleverly manipulated to put unfriendly neighbours
at a disadvantage. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">And, once Romans marched to war, resistance to their military was usually punished by
sacking, a payment of gold, taking some citizens as slaves and a harsher treaty. If a subject nation rose in
rebellion ( broke a treaty) it was punished particularly cruelly.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="Myparagraph">Having said all this, at least for a time, the Roman ideal of honourable war (enforced by the senate) put a limit on the worst of any manifest greed, abuse of power or desire for war.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Those cities that surrendered early ‘in good faith’
(trusting Roman fairness) or ‘before the ram reached the city gate’ were
treated much more lightly. The Roman yolk on them was usually light with
self-governance, reasonable taxes and providing troops to
booster the Roman war machine. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Allies were treated honourably, especially at first.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Honour, the glue
that held the early Republic together<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit;">For the early Romans, service was both a duty and an honour. T</span><span face="Calibri, sans-serif">heir l</span>eaders were expected to live up to the <span style="font-family: inherit;">Roman ideal in both
their private and public life.</span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"><b>'Auctoritas' and the t</b></span><b>wo types of
power<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In the Early Republic, wealth alone did not bring prestige. Power alone did not bring prestige. </p><p class="Myparagraph">What early Roman politicians especially strived for was called 'auctoritas', a sort of moral authority, resulting in the people’s trust. In legends, the auctoritas their heroes projected had an almost mystic quality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><i>Protestas</i>, was the legal power of a Roman
magistrate (or the pater familias within a family) but protestas could not be
exerted without auctoritas. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Much of the power of the senate came from its prestige as
a body of elders. This authority was called auctoritas patrum, ‘father’s authority’.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><em><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="font-style: normal; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><o:p> </o:p></span></em><b style="text-align: center;">Mos maiorum, ‘the
way of the ancestors’.</b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The ideal of how a Roman man should behave was founded in ancestor worship, acting in line with what they believed were ancestral ideals. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Romans had
shrines in their house for ancestors, special feast days and prayed to their
ancestors for approval and advice. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Upsetting the ancestors would usually result
in serious misfortune (like a failed harvest, or a disaster in battle). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Mos Maiorum, 'the way of the ancestors', was the ideals
of discipline, dignity and self control , respect for the Gods,
trustworthiness, virtue and honour. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">It lead to <b>Regimen Morum</b>, the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘mores’ of the Republic.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Romans took living up to these ideals (for those that led them) so seriously that enforcing
the Regimen Morum (amongst the leaders and upper classes) became an important
part of the work of what was called the Roman 'Censors'. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">These two ‘magistrates’ (coming from the Roman word for ‘master’)
were tasked with running the ‘census’ to determine the wealth of individuals.
Along with social class, citizens needed minimum wealth to serve in certain
groups within the army, (officer, knight, or infantry). It determined how much
equipment they must supply, how much tax they paid, how much their vote counted
in the people’s assembly and whether they were eligible for certain positions
like the Senate. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The censors not only appointed senators, they were able to
sanction (‘censure’) or even remove those from the senate, patrician or
equestrian class who (in their opinion) did not live up to the <b>Regimen Morum,
</b>the<b> </b>mores of the Republic.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkgrxJzGUcTjmGhxOlHiB5hhyphenhyphenPzabDEpUXWqA3nqhrCDZCPFnF_AEL6UqCQwcaSxF-7957boT2KFtEMyIXscONlzzwXOhRGtn1YomWx6RWpdsedIj0Djf-XVa5cU0kF3kLZw81HA983tPu/s2048/Appio_Claudio_Cieco%252C+an+important+censor.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2008" data-original-width="2048" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgkgrxJzGUcTjmGhxOlHiB5hhyphenhyphenPzabDEpUXWqA3nqhrCDZCPFnF_AEL6UqCQwcaSxF-7957boT2KFtEMyIXscONlzzwXOhRGtn1YomWx6RWpdsedIj0Djf-XVa5cU0kF3kLZw81HA983tPu/s320/Appio_Claudio_Cieco%252C+an+important+censor.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The blind Cieco, famous Roman Censor</td></tr></tbody></table><br /> <o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">These unacceptable behaviours might not always be illegal
or may have been already been punished by Roman courts but they included many
things that we would recognise today as likely to offend public opinion. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">They also included things like celibacy, neglect of one’s
fields (or one’s horse for an ‘equestrian’), extravagant living, cruelty (towards
slaves, dependents or clients) or excessive indulgence of children. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Carrying out a disreputable occupation like acting in
theatres was unacceptable for nobles, and hence would result in punishment. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The censors were both judge and jury. The only limit to their power was that they had to both agree. For a time the
office became very prestigious, usually awarded to former consuls. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Roman morality was inherently conservative, backward looking, and a major pre-occupation of the early ruling
class. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span class="hgkelc"><b>A
Patriarchal Society<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome’s social organisation was based on tribe/extended
family with a strong, patriarchal, head (usually the oldest living male of a
clan) called the ‘pater familias’.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The main limit on patriarchal power over family members
money and personal lives was not a legal one, especially not at first. It was the social
and internal pressure for leaders to behave in accordance with the Roman
concept of honour.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The almost absolute power over social inferiors (and the loyalty expected to these senior figures) carried
through to the military, the civil ‘magistrates’, the senate and the aristocracy. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Social class<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Patricians </b>were members of the noble families.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It is no accident that the term <i>patres </i>means ‘father’
and refers to the many descendants of the legendary 100 founders of the Roman senate.
('Senate' comes from 'senex', the Latin word for ‘old man’). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Rome’s founding legend, they were
prominent elders, selected to advise the king. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There were three main patrician tribes divided into a
total of thirty subdivisions with other prominent families added later. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Positions in the administration, senate, priesthood,
senior positions in the military forces were (at first) reserved for patricians. In a way their families were seen as the fathers of Rome. They were the only ones who
could vote in the <i>comittia<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i>curiata,
the (patrician) people’s assembly which was divided along clan lines.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">They dressed to reflect their position. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Formal dress was
the stola for women and the toga (impractical for military and other physical
pursuits) for refined men. Senators, senior military figures and ‘magistrates’
had additional prestige as signalled by added purple cloth and wearing special rings.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgT-g-cusFNeHxOAHVr3Gle3kdWuHU_mt7GfJqaI1sINe2HtceKuQzmgEg8pvUqVFB4QnLRuebx8dUE5_3kuMshs3gna4_FiI12V-LCtMlKSQ6vbGwOob6LVTCty39Phrqr9X3HnJ6uYetm/s416/220px-Tiberius_Capri_Louvre_Ma1248.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="416" data-original-width="220" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgT-g-cusFNeHxOAHVr3Gle3kdWuHU_mt7GfJqaI1sINe2HtceKuQzmgEg8pvUqVFB4QnLRuebx8dUE5_3kuMshs3gna4_FiI12V-LCtMlKSQ6vbGwOob6LVTCty39Phrqr9X3HnJ6uYetm/w106-h200/220px-Tiberius_Capri_Louvre_Ma1248.jpg" width="106" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Roman Toga</td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph"><b>‘Equites’ </b>(Equestrians or Roman knights) were a lesser
aristocratic and military class. Originally it was (often) a hereditary
position (with a horse supplied) but during a crisis it was opened to wealthy
plebes and others who had to supply their own horse. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">‘Equites’ had certain advantages over ‘plebs’, though not
as much as Patricians. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">One advantage they had over senators was that they were
allowed to engage in non agrarian commercial activities which gave them an advantage in gaining public and army contracts.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Plebians (</b>commoners) were largest group of Roman
citizens. A large number had small rural holdings and formed most of the infantry. At first, only patricians could be senior officers.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">By 287 BC, after a struggle called the ‘<b>conflict of
orders</b>’ , plebians (in theory) gained the same legal rights as patricians. It
still remained difficult for someone from an unknown family to acquire high
office or a senior position in the army. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-indent: 0cm;">Not only that, over time elections <span style="text-indent: 0cm;">became expensive. Senators
were not paid. ‘Magistrates’ were often not paid directly or not properly compensated for
expenses. As a result, high offices were only accessible to wealthy plebians,
who now joined the patricians (initially in small numbers) to form a new ruling
class. </span><span style="text-indent: 0cm;">The plight of the poor had not
been solved.</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes; text-indent: 0cm;"> </span></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-indent: 0cm;"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-indent: 0cm;"><b>Freed slaves </b>‘<i>liberti’ </i>became
Roman citizens (plebians) but suffered social stigma. They carried a taint
that might take several generations to overcome<b><o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The Patronage
System <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">This was an extension of the patriarchal Roman model (with
revered and powerful ‘godfathers’) into the relations between the upper and lower classes.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Plebians had less opportunities and were at a significant
disadvantage socially, in business or if they were in a dispute with a magistrate
or a powerful patrician.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Many aspiring plebs (and some patricians of lower standing)
sought the protection and opportunities provided by a 'patron'. Having many visible clients became a mark of prestige and power. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">At the closest, ‘<i>cliens’</i> would give their patrons familial
loyalty, including following them to war. The more dependent clientela would
meet at a daily morning reception at the home of the patron known as the ‘<i>salutatio’<b>
</b></i>where they were given their duties<b>, </b>after which they might
escort their patron to the forum.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">As the Roman ‘magistrates’ began to directly govern
conquered provinces, they brought this ‘patronage’ system with them. Local
kings and other officials becoming dependent clients of the governor and his
legions.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">The number of<b> Non-Roman citizens </b>increased markedly<b>
</b>as Rome gained success. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-family: inherit;">This included (Other)<b> Latins</b> who had limited rights
but were not full Roman citizens and <b>Peregrini</b> , free-born foreign
subjects. </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Of course, there was a growing number of <b>Slaves. </b>They
were mostly well treated at first, often being taken into the home, but they
had few formal rights.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Governance of
the republic, citizens assemblies.</b><o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The <span class="acopre">comitia centuriata</span><o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The main citizens assembly was called the comitia
centuriata and was organised to reflect the initial organisation of the citizens
army. It took over a lot of the functions of the patrician’s <i>comittia<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>curiata</i> which continued in a less
important form.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The comitia
centuriata elected the senior roman ‘magistrates’. It passed some laws, and
tried some serious cases. Only it could declare war. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The patrician seniors and the ‘equites’ voted first and
their votes counted more than the votes of all other citizens. Poor people got
no effective vote.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There were less powerful assemblies for communication,
debating and campaigning for office and <a name="_Hlk62389402">concilium (assemblies
</a>of specific group of citizens). </p><p class="Myparagraph">One such council, the Plebian council (<i>Concilium
Plebis) </i>became much more powerful over time as plebian power grew. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Consuls, Praetors</b><b> and censors<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">An elected public official was called a ‘magistratus’, ‘magister’
meaning master. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">A single <b>dictator</b> could be appointed for brief
periods In a military emergency. He needed to be nominated by the consuls on
advice by the senate and confirmed by the comitia centuriata. He was given <i>Imperium</i>
which was absolute or kingly legal power (it was also used to describe the
power of a general in the military) . <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The post of dictator became inactive after the second
Punic war<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>218–201 BC after which the
Republic no longer faced any credible external threats. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Sulla, the first Roman in the Republic to seize power by
force, was elected dictator after his second march on Rome (82 BC). (This was
during a time when the rule of law in Roman courts and politics was already falling apart).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two <b>consuls </b>were
the more usual senior ‘magistrates’<b>, </b>with powers like a king, but (at first) had yearly terms and an inability to be re-elected for another ten years. Each
consul could veto the actions of the other so they had to rule by consensus, to
further limit their powers. A consul was legally untouchable while in office as
they were superior to all other magistrates.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">This was still the model of a powerful patriarch (governed
by honour and duty) but the Republic (after the experience with Rome’s last king) introduced
ways to limit the power that a single man in Rome could get.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">By law, consuls could only be patricians. During the
conflict of orders when the plebians, for a period, insisted on the right to
appoint the two ‘consuls’, they were called ‘<strong><span face=""Calibri",sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">consular tribunes’.</span></strong><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">As governing Rome began more complex, other lesser magistrates
were appointed: ‘praetors’ (literally meaning 'leaders'), propraeters and finally quaestors (treasurers) the most junior rank.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Proconsuls</b> were retiring consuls who were nominated
to continue some of their duties perhaps managing a war (but they were
answerable to the consuls). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><b>Plebian Tribunes</b><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Part of the initial offer to resolve conflict at the very start of the Republic was the appointment of Plebian
tribunes (by 449 BC there was a college of ten). <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The body of a tribune was declared ‘sacrosanct’ which
meant an offense against their person was an offence against the Gods. Not only
that, the plebes also vowed to defend the person of each tribune ‘until death’. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">At first plebes could not pass laws that applied to
patricians but as they were declared sacrosanct, they could interpose their
person (and then their will) to stop abuse of patrician power in the courts or the senate.
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">This was called the power of ‘veto’ (Latin ‘I forbid’).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">They had to be physically present to do this, and their
power ceased if they travelled more than one mile from the city.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Military expansion during
the Early Republic<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The last three kings of Rome were Etruscans and according to the founding legend, Etruscans
were part of Rome from the beginning. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In the last quarter of the 6th century BC, the northern
Etruscans were at their height, dominating the Latins and reaching as far as
the Greek colony of Cumae in the south. By the time of the Republic, Etruscan
power was waning and Rome had emerged as the strongest of the local Latins.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSMVO5mHB-3F3gMdNljsTu5ubdq6145ExmAgpgGRZJb1gNXSt_BXbT_HUCjelDJOxu_jcO_ZQOHxFb_osDIfdQSd-bHptOuMEPC0HdiMxGGZeboWWnka56oeLpxkBqUrDN8_mGh7fd0cfi/s559/512px-Roman_conquest_of_Italy.png" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="559" data-original-width="512" height="400" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhSMVO5mHB-3F3gMdNljsTu5ubdq6145ExmAgpgGRZJb1gNXSt_BXbT_HUCjelDJOxu_jcO_ZQOHxFb_osDIfdQSd-bHptOuMEPC0HdiMxGGZeboWWnka56oeLpxkBqUrDN8_mGh7fd0cfi/w366-h400/512px-Roman_conquest_of_Italy.png" width="366" /></a></div><p class="Myparagraph">The Republic’s first two major wars were against Fidenae <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(435 BC), a town near Rome originally held by
the Etruscans but sometimes held by Rome , and then Veii (396 BC) , an
important local Etruscan town that had once held hegemony over Rome. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Then the Gauls sacked Rome (390BC) and it took Rome s few decades
to regain her former strength. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The Latin league (in 340–338 BC) fought an unsuccessful war to establish their independence from a resurgent Rome.</p><p class="Myparagraph"> Cumae (once the greatest Greek colony in Italy) had been already been sacked (by the Oscans and Samnites in 421 BC) and the conclusion of the
Latin wars gave Rome dominance over the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>central part of the west coast as far
as Cumae.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Following on this, Rome grew quickly<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>with colonisation and conquest, pushing further
south (along the coast) and north against the Etruscans. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome’s reasons for first going to war with the Samnites are
highly suspect. Even Livy admits that they were an ally (and a rival) of Rome
at the time. They were besieging the wealthy city of Capua<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(also not an ally of Rome) and seemingly were close to taking
possession of it.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">According to Livy, the city asked for Roman help and was rebuffed. Then they offered their city unconditionally to the Romans. </p><p class="Myparagraph">It was a very doubtful decision on moral grounds, but the Romans found it an offer too good to refuse. While the Romans sent emissaries (fetiales) to the Samnites, inviting them to withdraw, the Samnites were not pleased, not at all.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph">What followed were three hard fought wars (343
BC-290 BC), over half a century, where Rome with some lesser allies faced Samnites, Etruscans, Greeks, Sabines and others, even a few Gauls. It is not surprising that so many allied against what now seemed to be a dangerous predator, but Rome triumphed. The result gave Rome control of all central Italy from east to west. She was now the most powerful force in Italy.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Pyrrhic wars
(280–275 BC) then gave her all the remaining former Greek colonies and Southern Italy.</p><p class="Myparagraph">She had already began to move against the last major Etruscan
power (Volsinii) in 310 BC and the next eight years saw her mopping up residual Etruscan resistance.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Now, mainland Italy (apart from a few Gauls (celts) on the
Italic side of the alps) was all hers. </p><p class="Myparagraph">It was <o:p></o:p>264 BC and Rome was on the brink of launching the first war against the Carthaginians. </p><p class="Myparagraph"><br /></p><p class="Myparagraph">Next month’s blog will discuss the middle Republican period, beginning with <span class="acopre">an unjust war against Carthage</span>. At the end, Rome had occupied Carthage, Macedonia and Greece. It had forced the large Seleucid Empire (one of the successors to Alexander the Great) out of Greece and the Greek cities along what is now the western coast of Turkey, forcing it to pay costly war reparations.</p><p class="Myparagraph">Despite this external success, Roman society was showing the signs of moral decay that would later spell the end of the Republic. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The Middle Republican Period ends in 133 BC and it doesn't end with another great war or battle. It ended with the murder of a single man. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was a Plebian Tribune and a champion of the poor. He was trying to help the poor and army veterans with land reforms. Unfortunately most of the senators were large land owners, often illegally making use of public land and a large group of them opposed him at every turn.</p><p class="Myparagraph">Tiberius was not a man to back down and it ended with his murder during a staged riot.</p><p class="Myparagraph">(Later, his younger brother, Gauis, became a great orator and also an elected tribune. His reforms were even more ambitious than Tiberius's and he was no less stubbornly determined. He was said to have suicided whilst being relentlessly chased by armed enemies). </p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="Myparagraph">The third blog, and last of this series, deals with some of the events of the late republic. During this last hundred years or so (133–31 BC), Rome became consumed with the political use of the army, political murder, military coups, dictators and repeated civil wars.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><o:p> </o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">I hope you have enjoyed this blog on the early Roman
Republic. <span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><b>The first book : </b> 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span>is free. Universal link <a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a> or Amazon <a href="https://amazon.com/dp/B00A7IOFJC " style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></a></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc"></span></p><div><br />You can subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /><div style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></div></div>
<p class="Myparagraph"><br /></p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-23905827408267211732020-11-01T19:26:00.171-08:002021-02-28T22:09:44.101-08:00The Last King of Rome<p style="text-align: center;"><b> T</b><b style="text-align: center;">he last King of Rome and the dawn of the Republic.</b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1dR_m3shSn1xDufPm66JxeGNmxPvBkZPKwVxmJPjGJxJ8do5eVCFfH4M8GVPoX-OXthXwpFAo4JGUT-GFiYFE9Wxf0Bzj0Wv_yA3-2ehLaOh67dfv84tTgw9OhQ4XdW3W9KZ8-bTw-bZl/s397/Tarquinius-Superbus.jpg" style="clear: right; display: inline; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="389" data-original-width="397" height="196" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi1dR_m3shSn1xDufPm66JxeGNmxPvBkZPKwVxmJPjGJxJ8do5eVCFfH4M8GVPoX-OXthXwpFAo4JGUT-GFiYFE9Wxf0Bzj0Wv_yA3-2ehLaOh67dfv84tTgw9OhQ4XdW3W9KZ8-bTw-bZl/w200-h196/Tarquinius-Superbus.jpg" width="200" /></a>Lucius Tarquinus Superbus (Superbus meaning ‘the proud’)
was the seventh and last king of Rome (reigned 335 BC-309 BC). It is not clear whether he is the son or grandson of the fifth king, also called Lucius Tarquinus, but with the epithet Priscus (‘the elder’). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After six ‘good’ kings, Superbus was said to be unmitigated villain (by his enemies).</p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Background, Roman Government<o:p></o:p></b></p><p class="Myparagraph">The power in ancient Rome was always concentrated in a powerful executive with broad powers. During the ‘Monarchy’ this was the king. They were mainly
appointed, and it was for life.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In Republican times consuls and magistrates were appointed
by the Senate and there were various curbs on their power. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">During the Roman Empire, the Emperor was proclaimed by the
army (and sometimes by ‘the mob in the street’) and this was then ratified by the
Senate, sometimes with a degree of coercion. Some of the Emperors managed to successfully nominate
their own successor, but succession could be and often was a bloody affair.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Senate was the second most powerful institution in
Rome and reached the height of its power about mid-way through the Republic.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Senate <span class="hgkelc">was a council of ‘</span>patriarchs’(leaders) of the prominent tribes or main family groups. 'Senate’ comes from '<span class="hgkelc">senex’
old man, or elder so the original term meant a council of Elders to advise the King, though it had its own customary powers and functions</span>. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Later it included appointed magistrates (and war time
leaders) still drawn (usually exclusively) from the Patrician class. During the time of the second last king, Servius, he expanded it to include less prominent families /tribes and he created a tribe for the commoners (the Plebeians).</p><p class="Myparagraph">As a result, the Senate was almost exclusively Patrician until late in the Republican with the rising power of the Plebs.</p><p class="Myparagraph">
From the first, there were various people’s assemblies, presided over by a
magistrate (mostly a Patrician), and at first they were limited to tribes (families/ clans) and hence they were dominated by the
Patrician class. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In general, the people’s
assemblies had fairly limited power until late in the Republican era when the
Plebeian assembly became a focus of power and anger at the ruling class and ‘the
plebs’ began demanding the right to elect their own tribunes and magistrates, judge cases
and pass laws (plebiscites). </p><p class="Myparagraph">In the army, that same anger fostered the rise of
military strong-men which eventually saw the end of the Republic (as discussed above).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><o:p><b> Emperors,</b> </o:p><b style="text-align: center;">Kings in
everything but name</b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The first few Roman Emperors had many titles, but were at pains to portray
themselves as 'Princeps Senatus', the leader of the Senate rather than the ‘king’(Latin, rex). For a long time they maintained an illusion that the Republic remained both alive and well.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Their absolute powers over government and the military
meant they were kings in everything but name, and they were informally referred
to as 'Basileus' (the Greek word for King). Basileus as a name for the Emperor didn't creep into official use until well into the time of the Greek -speaking Byzantine Empire. <o:p></o:p></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>A Tale of two
women<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The story of the rise of the last three (‘Etruscan’) kings
of Rome begins with two clever but very different women.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Tanaquil</b><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The first is Tanaquil, the daughter of a powerful Etruscan
family who was wife to Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. </p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHvwKbwSBUt05wF4ShwbIuebe-gIiLegx1GGf0ZbzHSpfmp3MlrEZTPLCfv1ID6I15OMJb3rjD92ska6gekA-hMvMFNxhGTmr6kOh5ccq79VIWmyeND07kHJECralZbXeoBly2pw_Q_2UC/s398/Tanaquil.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="398" data-original-width="387" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHvwKbwSBUt05wF4ShwbIuebe-gIiLegx1GGf0ZbzHSpfmp3MlrEZTPLCfv1ID6I15OMJb3rjD92ska6gekA-hMvMFNxhGTmr6kOh5ccq79VIWmyeND07kHJECralZbXeoBly2pw_Q_2UC/w194-h200/Tanaquil.jpg" width="194" /></a></div>Her Etruscan name meant ‘Gift
of Grace’ and on arriving in Rome, she took the name Gaia Caecilia (both from
the Etruscan word for ‘happy’ and probably referring to her marriage to Priscus). <o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">She was regarded as the model of womanly virtue, skilled
in the domestic arts, particularly spinning and weaving, and credited with the
origin of various Roman wedding customs. After her death, she was deified as a
Goddess of healing and womanly virtue. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Early Romans, like many others, venerated
their ancestors who were considered immortal, so maybe deification might not have been such a big step as it sounds. Maybe it resembled the veneration of a saint in some respects. (After all , Vesta was the main Goddess of the hearth).</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Anyway, in addition to the above qualities, Tanaquil was educated
in healing and the Etruscan arts of augury and prophecy. Because her husband had
a Greek father, he couldn’t gain office amongst the Etruscans, and she convinced
him to move to Rome. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Legend has it that on his arrival, an eagle took his cap,
flew away and then returned it back upon his head which Tanaquil interpreted as
an omen of his future greatness. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The king himself noticed her husband and appointed him as
the guardian of his own sons. After the King’s death, Tarquin addressed the
people’s assembly and convinced them to elect him as king.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">When he was assassinated (by the sons of the previous King
during a staged riot), Tanaquil pretended he was still alive and appointed Servius
Tullius, (another Etruscan) from her household, as regent. This allowed Servius
Tullius to become king. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Tanaquil backed this up with tales of previous omens that
she had ‘kept secret’, and she later allowed him to marry her daughter.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Tullia (Minor)</b></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Now fast forward to a very different woman.</p><p class="Myparagraph">It was not uncommon in early Roman times for women to take
a feminised version of their father’s (or <br />husband’s) name. As a result, two of Servius Tullius’s daughters are only known as ‘Tullia major’ (the eldest, married
to Lucius Tarquinius Superbus) and ‘Tullia Minor’ (married to his brother
Arruns).</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLDHfI4JGowZTGh1ZCr8aQL8q3Xpt0J4VulmgEbDnKefg7InkrdnRVi8gBanhrgIDJ3M_qaeqWvgf4_HmXIlJtE1Ufi6X-kYA-pIGF2IQ0DpdvzbH5B9c2pPJhpkUnN9zSvLxYrAbjIlBd/s800/800px-Tullia_driving_her_Chariot_over_her_Father%252C_by_Giuseppe_Bartolomeo_Chiari.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="597" data-original-width="800" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLDHfI4JGowZTGh1ZCr8aQL8q3Xpt0J4VulmgEbDnKefg7InkrdnRVi8gBanhrgIDJ3M_qaeqWvgf4_HmXIlJtE1Ufi6X-kYA-pIGF2IQ0DpdvzbH5B9c2pPJhpkUnN9zSvLxYrAbjIlBd/s320/800px-Tullia_driving_her_Chariot_over_her_Father%252C_by_Giuseppe_Bartolomeo_Chiari.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tulia driving over her father, by Chairi<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph">The younger sister was fierce and ambitious and was said to have conspired
with Tarquin to murder Tullia Major and Arruns, so they could marry each other instead.
She then encouraged her new husband to usurp Servius’s (her father’s) throne. When
he had enough support, Superbus surrounded himself with armed men and sat on the
throne, summoning the senators.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Servius hurried to confront him but the younger man flung
him down the steps into the street and then had him set upon. As Tullia minor
was driving home, she saw her father dying in the street and seized the reins
from her chariot driver and spurred her horse and chariot over her father's
corpse, spattering her dress with his blood. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Tarquin refused to bury the Servius, and then put to death
a number of leading senators, whom he suspected of remaining loyal to the dead
king. He continued to rule without the senate, judging capital crimes himself which
lead men to fear opposing him. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Lucius
Tarquinius Superbus as king</b><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Superbus’s rule allegedly became known for arrogance and
treachery, sacking various neighbouring towns to fund the building of temples while demolishing
ancient Sabine shrines. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Some of his (other) more infamous deeds include:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 50.4pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->hiding
swords in the house of one of his<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>opponents and then accusing him at a meeting of Latin leaders of a plot
to kill him. The swords were found and the accused man was executed by placing
him in a deep well and putting a wooden frame on his head and throwing stones
on top of the frame until he drowned.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 50.4pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><!--[endif]-->When
he couldn’t conquer a Latin town,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gabii,
he got his son, Sextus to submit to flogging and then go there complaining of
mistreatment by his father. Sextus was soon a leading citizen with command of the
army. He sent a messenger to his father to inquire how he should deliver the
city into his hands. The king, who was walking in his garden made no reply, but
kept striking off the heads of the tallest poppies with his stick. Sextus took
the hint, and put to death, or banished on false charges, all the leading men
of Gabii, after which he had no difficulty in compelling the city to submit.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="margin-left: 50.4pt; text-indent: 0cm;">Talk about the tall
poppy syndrome!<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Superbus sacked several cities , bringing the wealth back
to Rome to fund various building projects. It is said that when the populace
became disenchanted with the cost, he again turned to conquest, this time Ardea, 35 kilometres to the south of Rome.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">During the siege, it is said, that the bored young noblemen
began drinking and comparing their wives.</p><blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;"><p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdRVLOQaowyTzYULmncY9EST7wf56bvsI2FGivMnQmmVr1Gn_95c9dqicyzOLaRv8VLUy_Jca7GMKvrikM9ciEi7MeyifzTxf-JCICAiRHT7vk31ClI9hJkqPMq-WLqedL6NuESe63DrnM/s1095/Rape+of+Lucretia+Tizian.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1095" data-original-width="800" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdRVLOQaowyTzYULmncY9EST7wf56bvsI2FGivMnQmmVr1Gn_95c9dqicyzOLaRv8VLUy_Jca7GMKvrikM9ciEi7MeyifzTxf-JCICAiRHT7vk31ClI9hJkqPMq-WLqedL6NuESe63DrnM/w146-h200/Rape+of+Lucretia+Tizian.jpg" width="146" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rape of Lucretia, Vecelli</td></tr></tbody></table><p></p></blockquote><p class="Myparagraph">Secret visits found that it was Sextus’s cousin's
wife, Lucretia, who was the most beautiful and the most dutiful. Struck by her beauty,
Sextus returned to rape her with threats. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">She later confessed what happened to her husband and then
suicided. The (patrician) people’s assembly was called, and for this and other
excesses, Tarquin’s ‘imperium’ was revoked. He was to be exiled and twin
consuls appointed to rule Rome (with an election each year to limit their power).
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">When word of the uprising reached the king, he abandoned
Ardea, and sought support from his Etruscan and Latin allies to march on Rome. Several
attempts by him to regain his throne resulted in desperate battles. The most
famous one was the assault by the Etruscan king Lars Porsena which led to the
heroic deeds of Publius Horatius Cocles defending the bridge across the Tiber,
allowing the Romans to retreat and the bridge be destroyed behind him.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Sextus was murdered by fellow Latins, and Superbus eventually
went into exile in the Greek colony, Cumae, south of Rome.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>But is this really
what happened ?<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><i>“<span color="windowtext" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">The victor
will always be the judge, and the vanquished the accused</span>”. <o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><i>an oft repeated adage, paraphrased
by <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hermann Göring at his Nuremburg
trial</i><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">As mentioned in the last blog, we have no written record of this time. For hundreds of years the only versions available were colourful tales often told by professional story tellers.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Adding to this, the victorious senators would have been keen to besmirch
the reputation of the last king, as far as they could. All those who later gained power in the new Republic would hardly be interested in rehabilitating his reputation. Despite all this, Superbus hardly seems pure and innocent.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">At the very least, he suppressed <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the Senate. He likely murdered opponents. Of course this was the sharper edge of politics at the time. In a similar way, as soon as he was displaced, the rebels
began killing his supporters for 'treason'.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Were the previous kings so much better?<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Priscus was assassinated, partly by a mob led by the sons
of the previous king.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">And if Servius was such a great and popular king, how could he be so
easily displaced, to die in the streets, alone and friendless, abandoned even by
his own servants, and then driven over by his own daughter?<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Some Patricians were involved in the plots to unseat the last
three kings. Ambition had to play a part in this. Perhaps Superbus bypassing the Senate challenged powerful Patrician factions.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Furthermore, while I am not an expert, I don't think it would be easy for Tulia to get her horses to trample a corpse lying in the streets. And if Lucius Tarquinus Superbus secretly hid swords in
the house of an opponent to frame him, how do we find this out (if it was a secret)?</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Lastly, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lucius
Tarquinus Superbus didn’t seem to lack friends in his attempts to retake his
throne, maybe he wasn’t as unpopular as we have been led to believe.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBW8pSh6OshJXtYPvfP6zbvFwVC8XkhoU5DTsj7Ie7Lwr25ip8EamgDIJGZ9DzdgjH8F4xPo2bBAiCj-qrW60Kpuc2MaWW3JVYEFxnaG-c0gQPHgAzv8T40y0lAcxg0C7-O0uFywAxNLO8/s1246/800px-Horatius_Cocles.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1246" data-original-width="800" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBW8pSh6OshJXtYPvfP6zbvFwVC8XkhoU5DTsj7Ie7Lwr25ip8EamgDIJGZ9DzdgjH8F4xPo2bBAiCj-qrW60Kpuc2MaWW3JVYEFxnaG-c0gQPHgAzv8T40y0lAcxg0C7-O0uFywAxNLO8/w128-h200/800px-Horatius_Cocles.jpg" width="128" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Horatius (by Hendrick Golltzius)<br /></td></tr></tbody></table>As much as we all love the legend of Horatius holding the
bridge (with two others and then alone when they were injured) it was very
unlikely. The Etruscans knew about bows and arrows and it was said that he swam
back to safety in full armour while arrows were falling all around him. <p></p><p class="Myparagraph">There
is also doubt as to whether the Etruscan king, Lars Porsena was acting for Superbus in his attack on Rome and maybe he wasn't beaten back. In one version he briefly occupied Rome.</p><div style="text-align: right;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEil9vvnhLBY0HKL6evWLhYlIy2fLNF3OOMzFUWqJtd-Ka_o7b8DMGFr0UthxwVS6Nu5vCdUBrTSyx_EIZf0S1er2LBNp6cM-aHNypa8G_5sAsx9KoWu69AWBg6zi35T1Ldnt0_eRFW4Hcsb/s1024/Senate+Cesare+Maccari.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="614" data-original-width="1024" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEil9vvnhLBY0HKL6evWLhYlIy2fLNF3OOMzFUWqJtd-Ka_o7b8DMGFr0UthxwVS6Nu5vCdUBrTSyx_EIZf0S1er2LBNp6cM-aHNypa8G_5sAsx9KoWu69AWBg6zi35T1Ldnt0_eRFW4Hcsb/s320/Senate+Cesare+Maccari.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><br /></p><p class="Myparagraph">Whatever really happened , this was a fight between the
king and the senate and in this case the senate won. It was the end of the Roman kings and affected politics
in Rome for many hundreds of years to come.<o:p></o:p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><br /></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">I hope you have enjoyed this blog, to see my novels, please check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><b>Free Book 1:</b> 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;">(</span></span></span></a><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span>)</p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc"></span></p><div><br />Subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /><div style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></div></div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-73964492059173121842020-09-18T16:39:00.052-07:002020-10-01T21:36:28.716-07:00The Kings of Rome, Fact or fiction?<div><div style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></div></div><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc"></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_4AH3ioPkrMZ3h6GqQYlMlD_5AExVq_90YHnzpkY4IwRics_HqGfBlNbApIf5NOGSoZobbxqd-L-vj9t_YCXNUBXlLwhk-LUUrw1-95VKc5CubNxVeY-oQhKYxjqm_w-ioFCZTOyCLx7o/s512/She+wolf+1.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="421" data-original-width="512" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_4AH3ioPkrMZ3h6GqQYlMlD_5AExVq_90YHnzpkY4IwRics_HqGfBlNbApIf5NOGSoZobbxqd-L-vj9t_YCXNUBXlLwhk-LUUrw1-95VKc5CubNxVeY-oQhKYxjqm_w-ioFCZTOyCLx7o/s320/She+wolf+1.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Romulus and Remus, Capitoline Museum, Rome</i><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><span class="hgkelc"><br /> There are no </span>written records from the time the kings of Rome were said to rule, and the accounts of this time are so obscured by myth that it is impossible to say definitely whether they existed at all. <p></p><p></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Italy in the Early Iron Age.</b></p><p class="Myparagraph">Italy, in the Bronze Age, did not reach the level of sophistication of other Mediterranean regions. The closest it came was <span class="mw-headline">the </span>Nuragic civilisation on the island of Sardinia (<span class="mw-headline">the Med’s second largest island) but on the </span>mainland, the largest settlements were little more than large villages. Even these latter slightly more advanced local cultures were completely lost in the Bronze Age collapse.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p><p class="Myparagraph">The turmoil, power vacuum and people movements of the Bronze Age collapse (1200-1250 BC), and its aftermath, resulted in a large influx of various new people to Italy both by land and sea. Meanwhile, Greece was plunged into 'the Greek Dark Ages', which lasted through to about 800 BC. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Early Iron Age settlements in Italy were typically small and decentralised. The biggest were on fortified hill tops or coastal regions. Most were not more than a thousand souls each. They relied primarily on agriculture, with some metallurgy, cottage industries and various trading.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the (Indo-European) newcomers was a small tribe called the Latini and by about one thousand BC they occupied a relatively modest triangle of relatively flat land that was later called ‘<i>Latium vetus’ </i>(Old Latium). .</p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="MsoHyperlink">‘Latium’ most likely meant ‘broad,
plains’ (relative to the surrounds) and ‘Latini’</span><b> </b>meant ‘people of
the plains’.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgW2aIBZ8SgJebPHgFiSx5zrhNtsklQjG2qTpRl0_Nr6iWqiyv2iN-YZ9_1RvYDbHcC5GZRcdnbewLMW60CJbJQYM6V1SwPxocjnaCvj8aBUA30QUEriDg37MI2HZ_WVV3bnSVYmCkAkz__/s512/512px-Latium_-5th_Century_map-en.svg.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="384" data-original-width="512" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgW2aIBZ8SgJebPHgFiSx5zrhNtsklQjG2qTpRl0_Nr6iWqiyv2iN-YZ9_1RvYDbHcC5GZRcdnbewLMW60CJbJQYM6V1SwPxocjnaCvj8aBUA30QUEriDg37MI2HZ_WVV3bnSVYmCkAkz__/s320/512px-Latium_-5th_Century_map-en.svg.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Latium in the 5th Century BC, Wiki<br /></td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="MsoHyperlink">‘Old Latium’ was on the west
coast, just at the southernmost tip of the growing Etruscan region. It stretched
between </span>the river Tiber and the promontory of Mount Cicero which is 100 km (62 mi) southeast of modern day Rome. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Things began to change around 960 BC as the region emerged
from the BA collapse. The large island of <span class="hgkelc">Euboea, just off
the </span>Greek <span class="hgkelc">mainland, had survived better than the other parts of Greece and in t</span>he
8th century BC (south of Rome) it established Cumae, the first and greatest of what would become many Greek colonies in Sicily and Southern Italy (that would remain independent through till Roman conquest).</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Latium Vetus sat on the southern edge of the (non
Indo-European) ‘Etruscan’ region (<span class="hgkelc">now called </span>Tuscany)
which, for a time, become the most sophisticated local culture. This placed the
Latini on an important land and sea trading route between the Greeks and the
Etruscans (and above the Etruscans were the industrious Celts who had moved into Northern Italy).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome started as an easily defensible hill-fort, with the
control of an important ford across the Tiber River (for trade both along the coast
and inland). It was surrounded by a wide fertile plain of rich volcanic soil, and so the early town thrived.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The arrival of the new Greeks brought one of the early Greek alphabets ('E<span class="hgkelc">uboean')</span>. All the early Italic alphabets (including early Latin script, 700 BC) have been derived from an Etruscan adaptation which occurred quite early, about 800 BC.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Roman Kingdom is traditionally dated from 753 BC–509
BC (I’ll discuss this later). Unfortunately, despite the re-discovery of writing,
no records survive from this period, and very few inscriptions. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The supreme priest of Rome was called ‘Pontifex maximus’. This title literally meant he was the ‘greatest bridge builder’ (to the Gods). He was in
charge of augury, festivals and religious dogma and his office also kept the
main records of the time (called, not too surprisingly, the Annales maximi ).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Most of these records were destroyed when the city (under
Republican rule) was sacked by the ‘Gauls’ (a confederation of continental Celtic tribes) in 387 BC. The rest were
lost to theft and time. </p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">One of the earliest writers to attempt to document Rome’s
early days (<span class="hgkelc">Cato the Elder, 234</span><span class="lrzxr">
BC-149 BC) complained that the only records he could obtain were obsessed with
recording harvests. Sadly, only fragments of his historical thesis, ‘</span>the
Origines’, remain. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Later Roman writers had to rely on oral traditions derived
from story tellers, people who, over the centuries, made a living telling (improbable
but) highly entertaining tales.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">This is fortunate for those who prefer their myth and
fantasy (with Gods and omens, tragic and inspiring tales) unencumbered by
historical fact, but it is not helpful for those who wanted to know what really
happened. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">R<b>omulus (first King of Rome)</b> and his twin brother (Remus) were said to be born of
the God Mars and a vestal virgin. They were abandoned to die in the wilderness on
orders of the King of Alba Longa (who had displaced their grandfather as king). One version was that the God raped their mother, and the Goddess Vesta was more than a little miffed at her for getting pregnant. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Of course, maybe
the new king didn’t want two sons of a war god to later challenge his throne.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJDlFHH_It0E7YRyw9bT5gDNP_ShNZE7TnGxyh60vVTfxcnat5WoTbzS-Nbh9ieSrUDkum7C1CYCn6jj7ZOYEjveluk_7JKQ0aOUAtKijS4bMeF8pvHwD-0anS1s2LpGhYUaOLkdRLjXPP/s546/Romulus+and+Remus.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="546" data-original-width="546" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJDlFHH_It0E7YRyw9bT5gDNP_ShNZE7TnGxyh60vVTfxcnat5WoTbzS-Nbh9ieSrUDkum7C1CYCn6jj7ZOYEjveluk_7JKQ0aOUAtKijS4bMeF8pvHwD-0anS1s2LpGhYUaOLkdRLjXPP/w200-h200/Romulus+and+Remus.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>frieze, Certosa di Pavia monastery</i></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph">The twins were suckled by a she-wolf (sent by the
River God, Tiberius) and then were found and raised by a shepherd with no knowledge
of their regal and divine heritage. </p><p class="Myparagraph">They later regained their grandfather’s
throne for him and then journeyed with a small group of warriors from Alba
Longa to establish the new city of Rome on a virgin hilltop (the Palatine hill, which would later become the central of Rome's seven hills).</p><p class="Myparagraph">Romulus used a plough to mark out the boundary of his new
city but before (or soon after) this happened, he argued with and killed his greatest
rival, his twin brother, Remus.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Romulus was not the only Roman king that was claimed to
have divine connections. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The second king, Numa Pompilius created an
immense opus of religious laws and customs, established temples and created
various other institutions. He was said to be very wise, received many portents and spoke directly
to various Godsbut his main source was ‘Egeria’, a nymph or minor Goddess, who dictated most of the laws of Rome. </p><p class="Myparagraph">All Numa had to do was write them down each night.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibrho0yfYpCT-14URhVQPfHULeuZbidecIu5y4DtXInpwJXCrwapd4UOBBrZ29Ngg8KGTu0NA247EU3SKybzg90p7-WguRwHo-Bit8bBqA4kXQIC-SsraLmvQbNaPyZUX5k6-n6gFn531c/s480/329px-La_ninfa_Egeria_dictando_a_Numa.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="329" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibrho0yfYpCT-14URhVQPfHULeuZbidecIu5y4DtXInpwJXCrwapd4UOBBrZ29Ngg8KGTu0NA247EU3SKybzg90p7-WguRwHo-Bit8bBqA4kXQIC-SsraLmvQbNaPyZUX5k6-n6gFn531c/s320/329px-La_ninfa_Egeria_dictando_a_Numa.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Egeria dictating the laws of Rome, Ulpiano Checa</i></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph">Servius Tullius, the second last king of Rome, in one
version, was conceived when his mother (also a vestal virgin) was penetrated by
a disembodied phallus that rose from a sacred hearth she was tending. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">According to its founding legend, Rome was established
as a sort of colony of <b>Alba Longa</b>, the previous foremost city of the Latini but it certainly didn’t behave as if it was a recent colony. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Under her third king, Rome not only defeated its mother city but destroyed it so thoroughly that we don't know for sure where it ever was.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Alba Longa, in turn, was founded in myth (about 1200 BC)
by ‘<b>Aeneas</b>’, a Trojan prince, and his son. Aeneas’s mother was Aphrodite (Venus), another divine connection. </p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBXyTXJ-Ol2M_IZRvUIJUA_Zk4DoRAB-LqjwOHme_iKQqgRR3j5SuJOlGH6qbXa5tgf7JTSljfZuZsrMaFfmxm32fxwgZCavCpujIQYD3LIIEneWRy6pVvz1apIekh_dGE4glk1LWxUmc1/s640/640px-Aeneas%2527_Flight_from_Troy_by_Federico_Barocci.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="444" data-original-width="640" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBXyTXJ-Ol2M_IZRvUIJUA_Zk4DoRAB-LqjwOHme_iKQqgRR3j5SuJOlGH6qbXa5tgf7JTSljfZuZsrMaFfmxm32fxwgZCavCpujIQYD3LIIEneWRy6pVvz1apIekh_dGE4glk1LWxUmc1/s320/640px-Aeneas%2527_Flight_from_Troy_by_Federico_Barocci.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Aneas fleeing burning Troy, Fredrico Barocci</i><br /></td></tr></tbody></table><br /> He was a minor character in Homer’s epic,
notable for his piety and the fact that that he (carrying his lame father), and his small band, was one of
the few said to have escaped from the sack of Troy. His first wife was killed in the attempt.<div>His story is taken up in <span class="st">Virgil’s </span>(29–19 BC) Epic Poem ‘the Aeneid’<o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">My favourite tale from King Romulus’s time is ‘<b>the Rape
of the Sabine women’</b>. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Not for the actions of the early Latin men, though, but for the heroism of the women.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The Sabines were another Italic (Indo-European) tribe with
settlements near the Latini as well as in the Apennine mountains. The story goes
that Rome was mostly established by men, and none of the local settlements
wanted to ‘supply them’ with women. Romulus held a festival at Rome, but it was
a ruse. At a signal from him, his men grabbed any eligible women, most of which
were Sabines. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">A few apologists suggest that this was not rape, that the
Latin term ‘<i>raptio’ </i>means large-scale abduction of women. They also
argued Romulus treated the women well, and they were not slaves. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">From a twenty first century point of view’ such
distinctions seem a little disingenuous, but the new women of Rome certainly proved themselves
both brave and loyal. Led by Hersilia (Romulus’s wife) they threw themselves
between the Romans and an army of Sabines in the heat of battle.</p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjImqYPnBO8VQ0n7y6BZGQGgh27xBkJ1KXS0gLy3Em9Ct2cDS_g5zCHKd9-AlDlnY9Vkb9V3DC0PRyXE3n2V4GyihG1n48crOrMft3XBgzcqvbDHwUHPljdt_wnJirsXTwT3cOMV4uBmm9/s768/Hersilia.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="768" data-original-width="545" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjImqYPnBO8VQ0n7y6BZGQGgh27xBkJ1KXS0gLy3Em9Ct2cDS_g5zCHKd9-AlDlnY9Vkb9V3DC0PRyXE3n2V4GyihG1n48crOrMft3XBgzcqvbDHwUHPljdt_wnJirsXTwT3cOMV4uBmm9/s320/Hersilia.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Hersilia (excerpt), Jacques-Luoise David</i> <br /></td></tr></tbody></table><p class="Myparagraph">Livy (writing sometime between 27 and 9 BC) takes up the
story.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><i>“</i>... <i>from the outrage on whom the war originated, with hair
dishevelled and garments rent, the timidity of their sex being overcome by such
dreadful scenes, had the courage to throw themselves amid the flying weapons,
and making a rush across, to part the incensed armies, and assuage their fury;
imploring their fathers on the one side, their husbands on the other.” <o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">It couldn’t have happened like this. The delay in the
Sabine’s coming to claim what was ‘theirs’ was, by some accounts, so long that
it allowed the women to have children.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Anyway, when Romulus eventually disappeared into a
whirlwind to become the God Quirinus (or was murdered by senators), Hersilia
fell into such a state of deep mourning that she, too, was taken into the
heavens to become the Goddess Hora (<span class="reference-text">Ovid, ‘Metamorphoses’,
8 AD</span>).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The tales of the early Roman kings are as rich enough to rival the Arthurian Tales of England and other great Epics. They are sufficiently detailed
that the ancient historians calculated a detailed time line, with the founding
of Rome estimated to occur on <span class="hgkelc">April 21, 753 B.C. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">At first these myths were by and large accepted as authoritative accounts. Even now, discuss the foundation of Rome and the old myths are quickly trotted out, sometimes with a footnote suggesting the Roman kings may have been completely mythical. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">This doesn't give a sense of just how fanciful the earliest accounts are.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span class="hgkelc"><b>Rome was already there<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Rome could not have been established in 753 BC on a virgin
site. The Palatine Hill was occupied throughout pre-history, and there is clear
evidence of occupation in the 10th century BC. Archaeologists have found
pottery and a wall to divert spring water, which have been dated to the ninth
century BC, indicating there was already a substantial town there at that time.
<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span class="hgkelc"><b>But Rome was a village, not a city in the early
times<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">If Rome already existed, the other problem applies.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Romulus was said to be able to defeat sequential armies firstly
from several nearby Latin towns, the Etruscan town of Fidenae and then an army
of Sabines. Most of the early ‘Romans’ would live on surrounding farms rather
than within the town/hill-fort itself, but even so this seems to be quite a challenge for the town Rome would have been at that time. </p><p class="Myparagraph">It would be completely impossible
if we apply the foundation myth (new town on virgin site) at face value.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Some of the institutions and buildings referred to in the
foundation myth, from Romulus’s time and onwards, would require a <span class="hgkelc">significant, urbanised settlement. Archaeological records suggests
Rome </span>didn’t reach urbanisation until 625 BC. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">The British historian specialising in Rome, Tim Cornell,
suggested the time-line laboriously worked out by the ancients, and seen by them as definitive work, was
completely wrong. He estimated the regal period was only from 625-509 BC, half
the period claimed (753–509 BC). He suggested that the estimated time each monarch ruled was too long compared if one compared it with kings we do know about.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">Further to all of this, Rome was likely
<i>not</i> named after Romulus at all. It was probably the reverse. There are a few possibilities, but
‘</span>Rumon’ was an ancient name for the Tiber, related to the Latin verb <i>ruō</i>
'to hurry, rush'. <o:p></o:p></p><p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Romulus</b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Unless evidence emerges to the contrary, the only reasonable
conclusion is that Romulus was a completely fictitious character.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>How about Numa Pompilius, the second King of Rome?<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Numa Pompilius's name comes from Greek <i>nómos</i> meaning 'law or custom', and pompilius meaning 'the fifth' (in one Italic dialect). To cut a rather long story short, 'his' accumulated work seems to be very much the work of more than one man.</p><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If there ever was a
single man called 'Numa Pompilius', he was unlikely to have been a king. He never led the
small settlement in battle and 'his' work more resembles the accumulated records of several chief priests/magistrates. </p><p class="Myparagraph">His reported actions were establishing endless temples and religious observances, the office of Pontifex Maximus and some civil institutions. The supposedly massive body of laws (and customs) were especially religious. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The Chief Priest (Pontifex Maximus) obtained advice from, and interpreted the will of, the Gods. They were obviously powerful (and somewhat educated) figures in Rome’s pre-history. Any assembly
of leaders was called within the temple. It may have been the chief Priest who settled disputes and sometimes governed the people, before Rome had kings.</p><p class="Myparagraph">Numa was described as an aesthetic man, a Sabine, and in legend Sabines were related to the Spartans. He was said to have ordered his written works buried with him, suggesting it was better to rely on the living memory of priests. </p><p class="Myparagraph">There is another legend (according to Livy) that four or five hundred years later and by accident, his works were found. After examination by several bodies, the books were ordered burnt by the Senate as too 'dangerous to religion' (Wiki). </p><p class="Myparagraph">Fanatics (and this can include religious fanatics) can give rise to some of the most dangerous dictatorships known to mankind. Fourteen books, a massive collection of law, custom and philosophy dictated by a Goddess were seen as far, far, too dangerous and powerful for humble humans to possess, let alone read. </p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The ‘third’ King of Rome<o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Tullus Hostilius <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>is
more likely to have been an historical figure, in that 'he' gave his name to the ‘Curia
Hostilia’. This building was a meeting place for the senators and was converted from
an Etruscan temple. It stood at the edge of the forum (which itself was an open-air
meeting place and market at that time).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><i>The Etruscans and Sabines contributed to the population
of early Rome, and if the Etruscans do represent (as is suspected) the original
Neolithic people of Europe, they might have predated the arrival of the Latini to the region.
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Tullus couldn’t have done what he was credited with unless
he lived much later than the <span class="st">673–642 BC allotted to him by early
Roman writers. </span>The remains of the Curia Hostilia has been archaeologically
dated to 600BC. Tullus (Rex) was also said to destroy Alba Longa (along
with many other military triumphs) and this also happened later than
traditionally suggested.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">And his family name really <i>was</i> Hostilia but it certainly suited his aggressive
military stance. If the </p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0a3Z1U3_kUB0fekH2Thcg4yJquv0fYHyxNTJgmTHeK_jfMYFKz9rCRdpztveD-mOqyYO4RMD3GbuC3xCnjyk4JdSHsbV8ZlIvzvUmHqrWs3nT-JIPPTCvehFxz7q40GH4vg5RpE_BcnDx/s454/La_Victoire_de_Tullus_Hostilius_sur_les_forces_de_Veies_et_de_Fidena.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="454" data-original-width="313" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0a3Z1U3_kUB0fekH2Thcg4yJquv0fYHyxNTJgmTHeK_jfMYFKz9rCRdpztveD-mOqyYO4RMD3GbuC3xCnjyk4JdSHsbV8ZlIvzvUmHqrWs3nT-JIPPTCvehFxz7q40GH4vg5RpE_BcnDx/s320/La_Victoire_de_Tullus_Hostilius_sur_les_forces_de_Veies_et_de_Fidena.jpg" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Tullus, from fresco, Capitoline Museum</i> <br /></td></tr></tbody></table>accounts of his wars with his neighbours is correct, he set <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rome on the path of aggressive expansion.<o:p></o:p><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>So, were the Roman Kings fictitious or not? <o:p></o:p></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There were said to be seven Roman kings. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Romulus seems to be completely mythical, Numa Pompilius was
more likely to be a priest. While a lot of his work is lost, if he wasn’t entirely mythical, the reports suggest that he was credited with the
accumulated work of several generations of priests (and /or magistrates).<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">As we move closer to the time of the republic, most
historians accept the kings become more likely to be historical figures, though
accounts of them remain so stepped in myth it is hard to be absolutely sure.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Adding to this is confusion over which king did what. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Romulus and
Tullus Hostillus were both brought up among shepherds, both carried out a war
with Fidenae and Veii, both doubled the number of citizens by bringing in other
groups, and both organised the army.<o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">There is a similar confusion over Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (the
fifth king) and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (the seventh and last king) but there is a particular reason in their case. The kings were appointed, the office wasn’t
hereditary, and yet ‘Superbus’ was the son (or maybe the grandson) of Priscus<span class="hgkelc"> .</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">Tarquinius is the Latin version of an
Etruscan family name of unknown origin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">‘</span>Lucius’ is a common Latin name that some
think is related to the Latin verb <i>lucere</i> "to shine". </p><p class="Myparagraph"><o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">In this case, however, the last three kings of Rome were
Etruscan and Priscus was often called ‘Lucumo’ which may have been confused
with ‘Lucius’, or may even have been the origin of the name. Lucumo is a Latin transliteration of Etruscan <i>Lauchum</i> (or
<i>Lauchme</i>) and simply means ‘king’. <o:p></o:p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">Which ever is the case, Priscus ( meaning ‘the Elder’<span class="hgkelc">) and Superbus (meaning ‘the Proud’) are epithets, and may have
been added later, so there were two (related) kings with the same name. <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">I hope you have enjoyed this blog, to see my novels, check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><b>Free Book 1:</b> 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;">(</span></span></span></a><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span>)</p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc"></span></p><div><br />Subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /><div style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></div></div>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc"><o:p> </o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span class="hgkelc">In next month’s blog I will discuss </span>Lucius
Tarquinius Superbus, the last, the most hated ( and the most interesting) of the
Roman Kings.<span class="hgkelc"><o:p></o:p></span></p></div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-31530794012561123322020-08-08T21:58:00.025-07:002023-01-21T14:20:10.968-08:00Out of Africa 2, Evolution of Homo Sapiens<p style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page</span></a></span></span></span></p><p style="text-align: center;"><b>Are Neanderthals and Anatomically Modern Humans the same species<a name="_Hlk46912449" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: inherit;">?</span></a></b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Before talking
about the origin of Homo Sapiens, we need to consider (just concentrating on the major groups) whether to include Neanderthals and their close cousins, the Denisovans were Homo Sapiens</span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span color="" style="text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">.</span></span></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWb1q3QvNbO3Txm2QVwtPbLiNCSVA-XonKqa9_IwWjsfuASmOUmXTSEWmBZHS_KtVboXcq10uKJvJB33WIm2eR9H0pQWy71-yRDlvIjFMfp33Zd2GNETV5Ddg6P4VOiDOBUwxh5YYQbTgj/s1273/Reconstruction_of_Neanderthal_woman.jpg" style="clear: right; display: block; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding: 1em 0px;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1273" data-original-width="1050" height="168" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjWb1q3QvNbO3Txm2QVwtPbLiNCSVA-XonKqa9_IwWjsfuASmOUmXTSEWmBZHS_KtVboXcq10uKJvJB33WIm2eR9H0pQWy71-yRDlvIjFMfp33Zd2GNETV5Ddg6P4VOiDOBUwxh5YYQbTgj/w138-h168/Reconstruction_of_Neanderthal_woman.jpg" width="138" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Neanderthal woman, </i><span class="mw-mmv-author"><i>Bacon Cph</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table><p></p><p class="Myparagraph">Neanderthals evolved in Europe and ranged across southern Europe, the Middle East and Asia as far as the mountains at the western edge of Mongolia. They survived until about 40,000 YA. </p><p class="Myparagraph">The closely related Denisovans (from ‘the cave of Dennis’ in Siberia) <span class="MsoHyperlink">were a little more elusive. They ranged mainly across Asia, surviving in New Guinea perhaps as late as 11,500 YA.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span class="MsoHyperlink"> </span><span class="MsoHyperlink">In </span>Western Africa, there were pockets of archaic humans that survived through till at least 13,000 years ago.<span color=""> </span><span color=""> </span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph">(Modern) Human DNA, in Eurasia and New Guinea, contains DNA from Neanderthals and Denisovans,
indicating ‘AMHs’ (Anatomically Modern Humans) bred with them. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Modern African
DNA indicates interbreeding with an, as yet unidentified, archaic human.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Archeologists have found bone
fragments of hybrids: an AMH/ Neanderthal hybrid (in Italy) and a Denisovan/
Neanderthal hybrid (in the above mentioned Siberian cave), both with Neanderthal
mothers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is a more complete
specimen from Romania of a 15-16 year old male with mixed modern and archaic anatomical
features dated as recently as 30,000 YA ago. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">If AMHs,
Neanderthals and Denisovans interbred (and the consensus is that they did) shouldn't they be (by definition) part of the same species? </span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"> </span></p><p class="Myparagraph">This is the reason I have stuck with the somewhat clumsy term
‘Anatomically modern Humans’ (‘AMHs’) rather than use 'Homo Sapiens' for AMH which assumes this issue is already decided.</p><p class="Myparagraph">While I have have some sympathy for suggesting this is not fully settled and we should still leave open the possibility of inviting Neanderthals to join our 'club' ( call them 'Homo Sapiens Neanderthalis') this is not the consensus, most see them as a separate species to 'us'. </p><p class="Myparagraph">(In explaining this, I will concentrate on the more populous Neanderthals, though Denisovans genes were more successful than the Neanderthal ones). </p><p class="Myparagraph">Being able to interbreed may not be enough to be the same species even though it is the usual test of separateness or not. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Firstly, some (gene) studies have suggested successful interbreeding with Neanderthals might have been uncommon. </p><p class="Myparagraph">If this were true, and even if it was just from lack of physical attraction, the further we get from successful interbreeding, the closer we get to them being separate species. </p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Evidence for Y chromosomes and mitochondrial DNA</b></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">There is no Neanderthal DNA in modern human mitochondria and not a lot in Y
chromosomes. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">This has led some anthropologists to variously suggest that
Neanderthal/AMH hybrids were infertile, aborted, or sickly. Again, if this is true,
the further away from viable, fertile offspring we get, the closer we are to
species separation (‘speciation’).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Confusingly, the mitochondrial
DNA and Y chromosome stories point in different directions. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Mitochondria are
small factories in cells that produce energy and protect the cell from
oxidative enzymes. They have their own DNA, which mutates more rapidly than nuclear DNA, and all
mitochondria and mitochondrial DNA comes from the mother. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Neanderthal m-DNA
is very distinctive. If there is <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>none in
modern humans, it suggests that a hybrid with a Neanderthal mother is less
viable or might be infertile, and not the cause of our Neanderthal genes.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Moving back to the
DNA found in chromosomes : women have two X chromosomes, men have an X and a Y. It is men , through their sperm, that determine the sex of the child. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">While there is a
mechanism for a pair of chromosomes to sometimes swap matching parts of
themselves, sexual reproduction is the main way advanced forms of life have of mixing
genes. (Swapping genes can happen between X and Y but not in the sex-linked
portion). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">So if there is
less Neanderthal DNA in the Y chromosome, maybe it is the boys with a
Neanderthal father that could have been infertile or have low survival.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><b>Other reasons for these findings<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">All these possibilities are not necessarily mutually exclusive and there are also are other possible factors that might have contributed to these genetic findings.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">The above may be due to sampling errors. </span>Gene technology is very new (the initial draft for the Neanderthal genome was in May 2010). We have few Neanderthals to test and even fewer hybrids and it is the hybrids which will contain the answer. </p><p class="Myparagraph">Now, if we can identify more hybrids, even from bone fragments, and investigate them, perhaps we can see what really
happened.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">As mentioned, Neanderthals had fewer numbers than European AMHs (Cro-Magnons). They many have left a smaller genetic
footprint from simple dilution. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">And yet, there is a darker, Darwinian, </span>possibility for our poor Neanderthals and their genes. Unfortunately it does seem to be at least part of the story. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p><p class="Myparagraph">Neanderthals were a physically robust
group and physically well adapted to hostile, changeable climate in the Glacial period.
Still, they mostly only lived till 35 whereas Cro-Magnon adults often lived till 50.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></p><p class="Myparagraph">Several studies of Eurasian fossils suggest initial levels of Neanderthal DNA were about 3 times what is seen today and a lot of the surviving Neanderthal DNA is 'non-coding' (so called 'junk' DNA). It seems natural selection was particularly brutal towards Neanderthal DNA, and it acted over
a relatively short period of time.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Some paleo-geneticists suggest that Neanderthal populations were more in-bred, with harmful or weak genes. Whether this was true or not, there is no doubt Neanderthals were seriously outmatched by AMHs.</span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">They had
simpler tools with little adaptation over time and simpler social organisation and clothes whereas AMHs literally specialised
in innovation. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">AMHs made throwing spears 279,000 YA and 130,000 Y.A.. Even before leaving Africa they
developed art, pigments, glue, decorations, beads, and multiple tools and </span>traded (obsidian) over 300 KM distances while Neanderthal trade networks were much shorter</p><p class="Myparagraph">By
60-70,000 YA. AMHs had developed hafted tools and bone and stone arrowheads (
60-70,000 YA).</p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">When AMHs finally left Africa, they were in small numbers (see below) and yet the Neanderthal phenotype lost really badly and fairly quickly, only overlapping Cro-Magnon man by 5,400-12,000 years. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">I won't document all the theories for extinction of Neanderthals, but some suspicion has to fall on the arrival of AMHs, whether they simply 'out competed them' or brought new diseases. At least, there is less support for early theories that they hunted them. </span></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><b>Chrono-species<o:p></o:p></b></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Another factor that might explain the apparent interbreeding of two 'species' would be the concept of 'chrono-species'. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph">All (or most) of the species of Homo are ‘chrono-species’ (as discussed in last month's blog). </p><p class="Myparagraph">Take the Chihuahua and the Great Dane. They are sufficiently different that they cannot breed (even if they wanted to). They would be separate species, except that there is a chain of dogs in the middle that allow them to share the same gene pool.</p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">In ‘chrono-species’ there is increasing separation <i>over time</i> and the intermediate links die out, leaving two or more<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>separate species. When this separation occurs is difficult to say, and if we go back in time to when the species have not fully separated, (for example to advanced versions of H. Erectus and early H. Sapiens), we might very well get interbreeding, though we would consider the two as different species if we are viewing them from a latter point in time.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"></span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">(On the same vein and while we don’t think this is what happened, if AMHs and Neanderthals both bred with an archaic link and not each other, this would allow an exchange of genes while they are separate species).</span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><b>Back to the question, where did H. Sapiens evolve?<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">H. Erectus, coming from Africa, colonised a large
part of Eurasia starting about 2 million years ago, though in nothing like the numbers of AMHs. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Where did AMHs evolve? <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">The earliest
specimen of AMHs were found in North Africa<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(Jebel Irhoud, Morocco about 300,000 years ago).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">At first there was
a mix of ‘modern’ and ‘archaic’ features. The modern skull features are a straight
high forehead with a box-like head , smaller teeth and a prominent chin. The more
‘archaic features’ involve a thicker skull, the low, receding forehead, a
somewhat oval skull, distinct brow-ridges and prognathism.<i><o:p></o:p></i></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Over time, AMHs
approached something more modern ( e.g. ‘Herto man’, Ethiopia 160,000 years ago progressing to another specimen from Tanzania 120,000 years ago). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">They also
developed a new (middle) Stone Age tool technology called ‘Aterian’.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">AMHs spread to Israel/
Palestine and the Arabian peninsula fairly early. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">These regions had much less desert
at the time and shared a number of animals with Northern Africa. Their habitats being virtually connected. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">The first specimen
outside of Africa was a jaw bone fragment found near Mount Carmel in
Israel,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>dating back to about 190,000 YA.
The characteristic Aterian tools have been found in Israel and the Arabian
Peninsula also dating to about this time. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">There is equivocal
evidence (damaged fragments) of a surprisingly advanced form of AMHs in Greece
200,000 YA. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Characteristic teeth and tools have also been found in China dated to
100,000 YA and modelling suggests AMH genes entering the Neanderthal gene pool around 100,000 YA.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">While AMHs probably started in Africa, they would continue to evolve (and swap advantageous genetic adaptations) over the whole of whatever territory they had spread to. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph">If it is confirmed
that a truly advanced form made it to Greece so long ago, this might challenge
the current narrative, but for the moment it seems that AMH first evolved in Northern Africa and
spread out (with a mix of archaic and modern features) at least to the adjacent parts of the Middle East.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">And then disaster
struck (more on this in a minute).<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><b>3 models of H. Sapiens evolution<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><span lang="" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">There are three main theories of how Homo
Sapiens evolved from H. Erectus. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><b>The
multiregional hypothesis</b>, suggests that so called
‘major racial groups’ </span>arose because H. Sapiens emerged form H. Erectus at multiple sites.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia8S50v7NbA-sgrFWS4OwOyT9zzBlducefwnx8ifRG29vysnODLF138Q_Aaaja0Z4LAgN-uNDcZLLE9gKEuIwIYxKZYGSo2wd0303uKb_7W4ttBnsyktH4hSUUw2ovTfWB_f49EYaieCTD/s299/MRH.jpg" style="clear: right; display: block; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em; padding: 1em 0px;"><img border="0" data-original-height="299" data-original-width="292" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEia8S50v7NbA-sgrFWS4OwOyT9zzBlducefwnx8ifRG29vysnODLF138Q_Aaaja0Z4LAgN-uNDcZLLE9gKEuIwIYxKZYGSo2wd0303uKb_7W4ttBnsyktH4hSUUw2ovTfWB_f49EYaieCTD/s0/MRH.jpg" /></a></div> Modern Australasians evolved from an Australasian H. Erectus, and so on. <div><br /></div><div>As first described, such a view is too extreme to fit the facts </div><div><br /><p></p><p class="Myparagraph"><b>The ‘out of Africa’ theory</b> suggests <span lang="">H. Sapiens evolved in Africa and then spread to Eurasia and might have been involved in pushing the other ‘archaic humans’ into extinction. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph">The <b>Assimilation model </b>is a variation on this : AMHs evolved in Northern Africa and they partly assimilated the archaic humans they came into contact with.</p><p class="Myparagraph"></p><p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><b>A time of Disaster <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">From around
350,000 YA (the period when the AMHs, Neanderthals and Denisovans were evolving)
the climate was becoming somewhat unstable. </span>It was beginning to alternate
between warmer , wetter periods and cold, very dry, periods. <span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Still, up to 200,000 YA. was a good time for the early AMHs. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">The world had been cooling for tens of millions of years but for that moment </span>was going through a wetter, warmer phase and the Sahara was green. .</p><p class="Myparagraph">Then, around 115,000
YA, the climate turned murderous.</p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">A Glacial Period
began in Northern Eurasia (and North America) resulting in shrinking habitats
and it lasted through till 11,700 YA. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Worse than that, the
cold diverted rains away from Northern Africa and the Middle East triggering
mega-droughts that went on and on and on, with massive desert expansion . <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">But something
worse, far worse, was just about to happen, a great cataclysm. </span>Around 75,000 YA <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mount Toba in Sumatra<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>erupted. </p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">The eruption was 12 times more
explosive than the largest volcanic eruption in recent history (the 1815
eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia, which caused the 1816 ‘Year without
Summer’ in Europe). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">Some say it had
little impact on the environment, others say it caused a ‘nuclear winter’ (if one can still use a
somewhat debated concept). Whether this was the cause or not, this time saw a massive
depopulation event, involving several mammalian species.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">The groups of AMHs
outside of Africa are thought to have died out, any in Europe </span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><span class="hgkelc"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">were later replaced by
Neanderthals and back in Africa, they were pushed to the brink of extinction. <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><span class="hgkelc"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Genetic models point to a serious ‘population bottle neck’ in those AMHs that survived in Africa (a sudden reduction in genetic diversity). <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">It was almost the
end for our Anatomically Modern Humans. </span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><span class="hgkelc"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><span class="hgkelc"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">T</span></span>oday's humans are said to be descended from a
very small population,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>between 1,000 and
10,000 breeding pairs (70,000 YA) and the common female ancestor of all living
humans on earth (mitochondrial Eve) may have lived as recently as 150,000 YA.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><b>Recent ‘out of Africa’<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">We now believe
that a very small group of AMHs left Africa (this time successfully) 70,000–50,000
years ago and mainly followed the Southern Route to the Arabian Peninsula (sea levels
were lower then but water transport was also available to them). </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">They continued to spread relatively rapidly along the coast of Asia to reach
Australia around 65,000–50,000 years ago (see red arrows in map).</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvC_6HWaYPYE1lFs1wMlxuz-Dkd5nWhgM1oFBRmLGZYAmgxoF2UnY7W7Jh8vMdc_Q_3eDiDiVGoi4oYgoFAA4ZU5PXOWs8N0tfMDcTTgUNIJRWkCH53rtmf8w65_gCJpiySird8harICQSODvfxZIZMdLzg0hpmiRiP7JHPbQmfXlGgs8nl1E6O6pH8g/s421/out%20of%20africa.JPG" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="296" data-original-width="421" height="225" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgvC_6HWaYPYE1lFs1wMlxuz-Dkd5nWhgM1oFBRmLGZYAmgxoF2UnY7W7Jh8vMdc_Q_3eDiDiVGoi4oYgoFAA4ZU5PXOWs8N0tfMDcTTgUNIJRWkCH53rtmf8w65_gCJpiySird8harICQSODvfxZIZMdLzg0hpmiRiP7JHPbQmfXlGgs8nl1E6O6pH8g/s320/out%20of%20africa.JPG" width="320" /></a></span></div><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><br /> <o:p></o:p></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">An early offshoot followed a northern route via the Levant to West Asia, finally reaching Europe around 48,000
YA..<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><b>Behavioural Modernity<o:p></o:p></b></span></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;">There are subtle physical
differences between Cro-Magnon (early European AMH's) and the humans of today, showing we have been
continuing to evolve, even over recent times, but the intellectual difference between Neanderthal a</span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 200%;">nd C</span>ro-Magnon Man (</span><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><span style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">40,000- 10,000 YA) was stunning. </span></span></span></p><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDHKpF_FfjpvgzZnOJ8wMECuUpDNInvvatJhDTB8QQ5uzWvvml1aeO8-lurpLvzf0sCBgvJaEOuEWVUJRUr0ocSaBK0nyZeaRfHV1kvLPkCj3rlO5RjT0PWdL06mZCprUi2mtoMwN6ozLS/s1600/Font-de-Gaume.jpg" style="clear: right; display: block; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding: 1em 0px;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1071" data-original-width="1600" height="219" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDHKpF_FfjpvgzZnOJ8wMECuUpDNInvvatJhDTB8QQ5uzWvvml1aeO8-lurpLvzf0sCBgvJaEOuEWVUJRUr0ocSaBK0nyZeaRfHV1kvLPkCj3rlO5RjT0PWdL06mZCprUi2mtoMwN6ozLS/w328-h219/Font-de-Gaume.jpg" width="328" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><i>Cro-Magnon, Charles Robert Knight,1920</i></td></tr></tbody></table><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">While </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">Neanderthal</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"> was still an advanced form of homo, Cro-Magnon had a rich culture with sophisticated stone working, advanced symbolism and cave paintings that stood
in stark contrast to our poorer cousins.</span><div><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;"><br /></span><div><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">It is described as 'behavioural modernity'. Some saw it</span></div><div><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">as an adaptation to the harsh </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">environment in </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">Europe at the time but, as mentioned, it was already present in </span></div><div><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">considerable measure and gaining momentum </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">before AMHs left Africa. </span></div><div><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">It is </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">an area in which (we) </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">AMHs really excelled, </span></div><div><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">especially </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">innovation, and it led to our success.</span></div><div><span style="mso-bookmark: _Hlk46912449;"><span style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span><p></p>
<p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">It goes without saying
that Homo continues to evolve slowly and subtly, with improved adaptation to the environment in which we find ourselves and sharing these </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">genetic</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"> adaptations across a gene pool now in the billions. </span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">Lately, this has been greatly overshadowed by </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">social</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"> evolution (technological and social revolutions), where we are literally creating these new environments. The amount of change has been </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">extraordinary</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;"> and the pace is getting faster all the time, even in living </span><span style="font-size: 15.3333px;">memory</span><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">I hope you have enjoyed this blog, to see my novels, check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">here</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-size: medium;"> or at your favourite e-book store.</span></p><p class="Myparagraph"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><b>Free Book 1:</b> 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;">(</span></span></span></a><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Click Here</span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span>)</p><div><br />Subscribe to my blog <a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a><br /><div style="text-align: center;">Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face="" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page </span></a></span></span></span></div></div></div></div></div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-73590572678939994642020-07-09T00:01:00.004-07:002020-07-18T14:32:05.316-07:00Out of Africa 1, the Evolution of Man<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<div style="text-align: center;">
Home Page <span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;">home page</span></a></span></span></span></div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><b>Primates</b>
evolved 55 million years ago (MYA) ago in a world very different to our own.<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwhb2NIRAtGpGmA2rfiUKj8OPsdKy0YAzNWv-oON69PV_m6sEDeFN642c9iMUU0oQ0ssO80hWOJ5x5ySg2TuzmXa99TBgKXW1mdXVuiqKTt5YXtGsbRKBX3rnmnu54hhtjy3hh6kEcGlqT/s1600/512px-Crab-eating_Macaques_%2528Macaca_fascicularis%2529_grooming_%252815578459618%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="378" data-original-width="512" height="147" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhwhb2NIRAtGpGmA2rfiUKj8OPsdKy0YAzNWv-oON69PV_m6sEDeFN642c9iMUU0oQ0ssO80hWOJ5x5ySg2TuzmXa99TBgKXW1mdXVuiqKTt5YXtGsbRKBX3rnmnu54hhtjy3hh6kEcGlqT/s200/512px-Crab-eating_Macaques_%2528Macaca_fascicularis%2529_grooming_%252815578459618%2529.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Crab-eating_Macaques, Bernard Dupont, </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">10
million years before, there had been a massive asteroid strike (or strikes) causing
a 'mass extinction event' </span>including most non avian dinosaurs, initiating a golden age for mammals. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">The main
land masses were closer than today. Eurasia and America were just separating;
Australia and Antarctica were much closer and India was still a large island south
of Eurasia.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">It was very
hot and steamy, in no small part due to greenhouse gases (later sequestrated
into our fossil fuels and lying frozen in Siberian peat bogs). E</span>quatorial forests stretched all the way to
Antarctica.<br />
It was an ideal world for the evolution and spread of a teeming population of tree dwellers
and small mammals.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
But <b>it was also, for several reasons, a climate maximum</b>, heralding an inexorable
cooling over many millions of years leading up to the Last Glacial Maximum
about 19,000 BC.<br />
Over this long period, tropical forests eventually shrank to the equatorial regions, being replaced
by deciduous forests, grass lands and deserts. Permanent ice eventually formed
at the poles. (Non human) primates eventually retreated from Europe, leaving only
the Barbary apes of Gibraltar.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLNmUte114y4zPbzdW7snvWm0mJi4SEpsLBSupY0Wt05yOdZFU4NxzZMk7GhYFU7y72e9l-hhheYFXMThDajfpFFPCh2KRgRw4dhAR63QPBp2VEX5cA9ftHjZODocIZRMJhwjzwfhdStDw/s1600/Napier+and+Napier+Range_of_Non-human_Primates.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="134" data-original-width="256" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLNmUte114y4zPbzdW7snvWm0mJi4SEpsLBSupY0Wt05yOdZFU4NxzZMk7GhYFU7y72e9l-hhheYFXMThDajfpFFPCh2KRgRw4dhAR63QPBp2VEX5cA9ftHjZODocIZRMJhwjzwfhdStDw/s1600/Napier+and+Napier+Range_of_Non-human_Primates.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Current Primate range Napier and Napier, Wiki</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
This change was slow and 25 MYA there
was still plenty of space for the Great Apes to evolve and flourish in the equatorial forests, through till about 15 MYA when the shrinkage of their habitat really began
to 'bite'. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
From our tree-dwelling forebears mankind inherited forward-looking eyes, acute binocular vision (more often seen in predators) and grasping hands .<o:p></o:p><br />
While there are many interesting suggestions, there is no fully accepted explanation of why our forebears moved to an erect posture and a bipedal (striding) gait, as opposed to what other apes and monkeys now do when they walk. Maybe it was a combination of things.<br />
There is, however, a prelude in how apes use their upper limbs for grasping, manipulating (feeding and grooming) and their rear limbs for walking along branches. Apes also they tend to sit erect when feeding or resting. The potential for an erect posture and bipedal gait was already there and that was the way 'we' 'decided' to go, and it worked .</div>
<div align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Australopithecus.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Most Apes and monkeys remained in the shrinking jungles, but some monkeys (e.g. baboons), and some apes (e.g. chimps and
Australopithecus) moved into the savanna (mixed grass/woodland) that was spreading out over East and Northern Africa. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
To use a very archaic term, the Genus <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Australopithecus</span>
could be described as a ‘missing link’ between Apes and Homo (having features
of both). They evolved around 4.2 million years ago, becoming widespread, eventually dying out about 1.9 million years ago.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
They were the first of our ancestors to walk erect
on two legs, sleeping in the security of trees at night. They had brains
roughly 35% of the size of a modern human brain. Most were slender and covered
in fur. The larger of the Genus reached 1.4 meters, many were smaller and females were
distinctly smaller than males. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><br /></span>
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">The name '</span>Australopithecus' <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">comes from a<b> </b>combination
of Greek and Latin, m</span>eaning ‘Southern Ape’ (from a full specimen
discovered in South Africa).<br />
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
They lived on fruit, vegetables, and tubers, and perhaps
easy-to-catch animals such as small lizards.<br />
The ‘Genus’ Australopithecus is defined as a group of ape species and subspecies that had features between apes and ‘homo’. In other words they walked erect.<br />
We have no way to be sure if they are all as closely related as we think, we have lumped them together on similarities, often on the basis of fragmentary evidence. Some anthropologists variously propose lumping them with homo, splitting off some of them into other existing genera or using additional suggested genera to subdivide them. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/human-evolution/Background-and-beginnings-in-the-Miocene" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;">see here</span></a><br />
This problem of classifying their finds is one of the great challenges for archaeologists and anthropologists who use morphology, habitat and behaviour as a guide to species, subspecies and genera (more on this later).<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Cutting ties </b></div>
Genus Homo diverted from the Genus Pan around 5 million years ago, as measured by
differences in DNA.<o:p></o:p> Genus Pan is our closest relatives amongst the apes, chimpanzees being their only surviving representatives. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In Genus Homo two chromosome pairs fused to reduce our
chromosomes to 23 pairs instead of the 24 pairs in other apes, decisively separating Homo from all other surviving apes. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
We currently need living, dividing, cells to count chromosomes, so
we don’t know when this reduction happened, but it is most likely early. We also don’t know if Australopithecus had this too, but it is definitely possible.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b>Genera, Species and Subspecies<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The concept of a species seems simple enough: (the largest
grouping of organisms that can crossbreed with one another and produce fertile
offspring).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A ‘genus’ is a group of
related species with a common ancestor, and subspecies are groups within
a species that look different, sometimes significantly so, but can still readily
crossbreed if given the opportunity.<br />
'Polytypic' can refer to a Genus (with lots of species) but more often refers to a species with lots of subspecies. The main species of homo over time were polytypic.<br />
<br />
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
‘Breeds’ of domesticated species (like the multiple types
of dogs, horses etc) are a special example of ‘subspecies’. If dogs were somehow long extinct and only a few partial remains were available, an archaeologist would likely think he had discovered several different species. In fact domesticated dogs, some wild dogs, and various wolves are all (currently) recognised as one species!<br />
<br />
Early man cannot compete with the sort of diversity of Canis Lupus Familiaris (domestic dogs) has/have. The evidence is still fragmentary, especially in the
distant past, but over time we have begun to believe that interbreeding of different-looking contemporary forms of Homo was far more common than we ever dreamt could be possible, and this explains some of the combinations we have found.<br />
It's hard to be absolutely sure, but much of what we assumed were different contemporary species were subspecies. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Part of this new understanding followed advances in understanding of how evolution actually works, and part of it followed the realisation that modern man interbred with Neanderthals and Denisovans as soon as he reached Eurasia from Africa (more on this later).<br />
<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<div style="text-align: left;">
<b style="text-align: center;">Evolution and subspecies.</b></div>
Evolution occurs when there is variation between individuals (within a species) and some of these variations have an advantage for survival and reproduction, either dependent on a certain habitat or an over all advantage.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Sub-species occur in nature when groups of the same species become separated over time or place and they then adapt to different environments or simply experience genetic drift. <o:p></o:p><br />
<br /></div>
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
With several subspecies of early man (capable of interbreeding). Each had particular mutations that might be an advantage 'over all' or in certain habitats. Interbreeding, ensured that any differences that might prove advantageous could be combined and not lost forever over time.<br />
Specific combinations may work well together. Such a wider variation allows penetration into niche habitats and faster adaptation to habitat change so was often a survival advantage for the species.<br />
<br />
<b>Chronospecies</b><br />
This interbreeding and evolution within subspecies leads to the concept of 'chronospecies'. <span class="st">A </span><em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">chronospecies</span></em><span class="st"><i> </i>is a species which slowly changes over time until it cannot be considered to be the same
species as the originating genetic line (had they existed at the same point in time). </span><br />
<span class="st"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxNnw1vcZjvVjXreseBXhOfaSIKYHSBH3Sez7Si14Jri9jBwlDXtgaEFHAR4_lKHxunkh71pUKOMFOPHq8xd4l_XLRFxOi-LSL8c3asf7u_Ukxs_TEZTVvWkwRrMzid8Ibla51MVXr_xOv/s1600/Chronospecies.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="389" data-original-width="256" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxNnw1vcZjvVjXreseBXhOfaSIKYHSBH3Sez7Si14Jri9jBwlDXtgaEFHAR4_lKHxunkh71pUKOMFOPHq8xd4l_XLRFxOi-LSL8c3asf7u_Ukxs_TEZTVvWkwRrMzid8Ibla51MVXr_xOv/s200/Chronospecies.svg.png" width="131" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">Chrono-species Ian Alexander, Wiki</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><br />
<br />
<span class="st">It might be just genetic drift and/or different environments causing such an accumulation of differences that eventually interbreeding becomes unlikely (e.g. loss of sexual attraction, mating rituals or physical differences).</span><br />
<span class="st"><br /></span><span class="st">While n</span>atural selection can favour interbreeding to foster a larger gene pool with greater diversity, it can also favour separation of subspecies into separate species ('speciation') .<br />
This happens when the 'in-between' or older varieties become at such a disadvantage relative to the new variety that the benefits of the larger gene pool (to the species as a whole) is outweighed by the cost.<br />
Such a thing occurs more rapidly when the habitat of the subspecies is very different and the adaptation needed for each niche habitat is different.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In the development of a chronospecies, each change is small and interbreeding occurs along the 'chain'. The point at which we would say a new species has 'arisen' is arbitrary. The evolution of man followed just such a pattern.</div>
<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
While there is <b>considerable</b> uncertainty and debate, the minimalist
view (currently favoured) leaves Homo Habilis, Homo erectus and Homo sapiens
(and their respective contemporaries) as the only three species of Homo. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0FH8gu_jFlfwswcwH0YH-QyZAQfd5aVvd14nuX-Fn2FqLgK9AHBS7yRdWiIfxyGhWxW9_Q4dM_vE7vPWW1WWZY7hRT1CmQqAhlV4aCZEmljfNn_Otmc6xCgUfj7zHUn-ksNqrc-zi-bV6/s1600/human-lineage-hominins-members-lineages-apes-interpretations.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="933" data-original-width="1600" height="186" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0FH8gu_jFlfwswcwH0YH-QyZAQfd5aVvd14nuX-Fn2FqLgK9AHBS7yRdWiIfxyGhWxW9_Q4dM_vE7vPWW1WWZY7hRT1CmQqAhlV4aCZEmljfNn_Otmc6xCgUfj7zHUn-ksNqrc-zi-bV6/s320/human-lineage-hominins-members-lineages-apes-interpretations.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Encyclopaedia Britannica <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/human-evolution/Hominin-habitats" style="font-family: calibri, sans-serif; font-size: 14.6667px;"><span style="color: cyan;">see here</span></a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Gone are the multiple ‘species’ that were proclaimed every
time an old time archaeologist found remains that varied from what had been found before.<br />
<br />
We need to be cautious not to see evolution as always a march from primitive to more advanced and complex, though this can happen.<br />
Natural selection doesn't care about human value judgements, it only cares about adaptation (survival) and reproduction. It just so happens that many of the adaptations leading to modern man had a huge survival advantage. <o:p></o:p><br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b>Homo Habilis<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<i>Homo habilis</i> was one of the earliest species of
‘man’ (homo), 2.4 to 1.4 MYA (overlapping Australopithecus by half a million years).<br />
The arrival of Habilis marks the official start of Genus Homo.<br />
<o:p></o:p>‘Habilis’ is Latin, the same root as ‘able’ and has a number of related meanings like ‘skilful’. ‘Homo Habilis’ has been translated as <span class="st">‘handy man’, tool maker.</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgID9TyxoqJitdklqSRkDXrnITp8Je_QzLWs9mtrD4kuCQn81Jxg1acC7HI4YhWbhIzZAhFfukI_3OkJhRYsRUDWmLFhUEY3mWS-282WfLZc5Xcayepo9iS1Qo4Ip5q9VcOMbxDbF6GA8hW/s1600/MEH_Homo_habilis_Daynes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1434" data-original-width="1001" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgID9TyxoqJitdklqSRkDXrnITp8Je_QzLWs9mtrD4kuCQn81Jxg1acC7HI4YhWbhIzZAhFfukI_3OkJhRYsRUDWmLFhUEY3mWS-282WfLZc5Xcayepo9iS1Qo4Ip5q9VcOMbxDbF6GA8hW/s320/MEH_Homo_habilis_Daynes.jpg" width="223" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Female H. Habilis, <b style="background-color: white; color: #202122; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 14px; text-align: start;">Élisabeth Daynès </b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
We initially used evidence of fashioning of tools as the defining feature of Genus Homo, but advanced types of Australopithecus have been shown to fashion primitive tools maybe even a million years before Homo arose.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="st">We don’t know for sure if Homo Habilis is a
direct ancestor of modern man as we first believed, and we don't know 'his' relationship with a number of other early
forms of Homo </span><span class="st">(like </span><i>H. rudolfensis, </i>another contender for the title of being our ancestor<i>.</i> We don't know whether they were separate species or subspecies).<br />
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="st">The oldest Homo remains, </span>LD 350-1,
(as yet unclassified into a sub species) is from Ethiopia 2.8–2.75 million years
ago (mya) confirming that 'homo' evolved in the African savanna.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
Homo spread to Asia about 2 million years ago. There were
manufactured tools from 2.1 MYA found in <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Shangchen</span>,
China and specimens found in the nation of Georgia 1.85–1.77 MYA. These were thought to be from Homo
erectus but the Georgian specimens and brain size are decidedly primitive,
so it might have been a variety of Homo Habilis or maybe something in between.<br />
<br />
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b>Homo Erectus<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The award for the first species of man that spread
beyond Africa usually goes to Homo Erectus.<br />
<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">H. Erectus </span>lived from between 2 MYA to as recent as 110,000
years ago, overlapping <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">H. </span>Habilis by almost half a million years and Homo
Sapiens by about 200,000 years. Being a Chronospecies the later versions of H.Erectus would be more advanced.<o:p></o:p><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9wL0_HOdrBFX2moD9Szq2P1ZrtL2U8AzSeNLTOb17RlcU8YVwI8dDQkP_BX2Z5xC26qheUkzuC3jIjP5hyphenhyphenTakNtakZ4Q6V5qFn_todbSdLDq0yfjAMKXYGGubN9FrLm_rLZQjOR3J-tld/s1600/The-dispersal-of-Homo-erectus-and-Large-Flake-Acheulian-around-17-Ma.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="884" data-original-width="802" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9wL0_HOdrBFX2moD9Szq2P1ZrtL2U8AzSeNLTOb17RlcU8YVwI8dDQkP_BX2Z5xC26qheUkzuC3jIjP5hyphenhyphenTakNtakZ4Q6V5qFn_todbSdLDq0yfjAMKXYGGubN9FrLm_rLZQjOR3J-tld/s320/The-dispersal-of-Homo-erectus-and-Large-Flake-Acheulian-around-17-Ma.png" width="290" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">H. Erectus dispersal, Sheila Mishra <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-dispersal-of-Homo-erectus-and-Large-Flake-Acheulian-around-17-Ma_fig2_268926822" style="font-family: georgia, "times new roman", serif; font-size: 16px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">Here</span></span></span></a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It is the longest surviving of all human species, being
present nine times as long as our own species, <span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;">Homo sapiens.</span><br />
<em><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br /></span></em>
H.
Erectus was highly successful, and mobile, and spread widely over Africa and Eurasia<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif;"><i>. </i></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It was
H. Erectus that first began to hunt medium-large animals in groups (such as <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">bovines</span>
or <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">elephants</span>),
moving to a diet richer in meat. Erectus would have had some tribes that routinely followed migrating herds as well as moving into other niche habitats.<br />
<br />
Erectus tamed fire a million years ago , and maybe earlier, and he made water craft probably for fishing, but was able to colonise at least a few islands (eg Indonesia)<br />
<br />
With longer legs and relatively shorter arms (no longer climbing trees) loss of hair, and adaptation in sweat glands, he was able to run longer distances in the heat . H. Erectus became bigger, faster and smarter (with an average brain capacity at least a third bigger than H. Habilis).<br />
<br />
<br />
There is a conflict in the best pelvis for running on two feet and the ability to deliver babies with large heads.<br />
In 'Modern man ' children are dependant on their parents for longer (with the continued move to more monogamous bonding in parents) allowing considerable brain growth after birth.<br />
Larger brains require a lot of energy and are best supported in a hunter-gatherer society by cooking food and using more meat in the diet, requiring co-operative hunting of large animals, mostly by males working together.<br />
<br />
H. Erectus is a chronospecies with a very long history and a very wide range. He evolved over time and there were many subspecies. The larger subspecies had body proportions similar to modern man, with distinctly larger brains (up to 60% of H. Sapiens). This is in sharp contrast to the smaller and earlier subspecies (or species) of Erectus.<br />
<br />
The main
African versions is often called ‘H. ergaster’.<br />
<i><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Homo heidelbergensis</span></i><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"> (</span>700,000 to 300,000 years ago in Africa
and Europe) <span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">is the subspecies (or
maybe chronospecies) closest to H. Sapiens.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
The oldest H. Erectus remains are found in Kenya. The
majority view is that H. Erectus also evolved in Africa and spread over
Euro-Asia via the Middle East then on to Asia (including China and Indonesia) about 2
MYA. As said, he also made it to islands and must have made primitive water craft. There is some debate when H. Erectus arrived in Europe, whether it was
soon after or somewhat delayed because ‘he’ preferred a warmer climate.<o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
Next blog is the conclusion of 'out of Africa'<br />
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<br />The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-21206234424202251702020-05-19T22:07:00.007-07:002020-06-15T21:31:25.124-07:00The Missing Neolithic Farmers of Old Europe<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
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In last month’s blog we discussed the dawn of the
Neolithic Age. It is believed that the transition to <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq-hCPLetWjG3H1QEOHr5yKuyjHOLihoyvTBLhwf8e3SNAaSjcu-uVEP1zfM_y65DU2bJg2U0-hJQm5ajcf2y1BnWNNCl-sZcTarat4Txg7mVTJHC75HachjnQZDNBj8g81Lyhot3DOICk/s1600/250px-Urfa_man.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="417" data-original-width="251" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiq-hCPLetWjG3H1QEOHr5yKuyjHOLihoyvTBLhwf8e3SNAaSjcu-uVEP1zfM_y65DU2bJg2U0-hJQm5ajcf2y1BnWNNCl-sZcTarat4Txg7mVTJHC75HachjnQZDNBj8g81Lyhot3DOICk/s200/250px-Urfa_man.jpg" width="119" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Urfa Man Turkey 9,000 B.C.</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Neolithic farming occurred in the
Levant, most likely when a 1200 year drought brought a catastrophic end to
the local Mesolithic Age. A few permanent settlements survived this catastrophe (like Tell Qaramel near modern day Aleppo) but the shortage of forage likely forced
greater reliance on cultivation of 'wild' strains of plants and grains (and presumably primitive
irrigation).</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At first ‘pre pottery
Neolithic’ settlements (PPNA, 10,000–8,800 BC) were similar to the Natufian Mesolithic
villages except for being larger and (much) more sophisticated (e.g. Jericho).</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
There were variations over time and distance but in the later ‘a-ceramic’ period (PPNB, 8,800–6,500 BC) Anatolia (Turkey) emerged as a Neolithic
powerhouse, incorporating animal husbandry, 'domesticated' strains of grain and other crops and farming techniques some of which
were discovered elsewhere (such as Mesopotamia and the Zagros region of western
Iran). </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It was Anatolian farmers and fisher folk that island hopped to reach Greece (around 7000 BC, before the official start of the pottery Neolithic Age in the Middle East, 6,400 BC). They established a large number of thriving maritime settlements over the northern Mediterranean and eventually the Atlantic
coast. They followed two
land routes into Europe, eventually reaching Scandinavia and crossing the English
Channel around 4,000 BC ( the map to the right and below is only to roughly show some of these routes). <br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi76aTpGzZuTJMfvJGUzLa1NuNEnML_ySbcyUtSDULD9sAFKgbfQRX2YzE3cx8y1XcXQokCOYPVJUDmqYgCMzG1gFdB65YU9NYxy2ZfFwMMs2G-tCobGq6lw9DX1M3UtT0LqfcxPj2ZzNP-/s1600/Expansion_n%25C3%25A9olithique.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="336" data-original-width="512" height="210" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi76aTpGzZuTJMfvJGUzLa1NuNEnML_ySbcyUtSDULD9sAFKgbfQRX2YzE3cx8y1XcXQokCOYPVJUDmqYgCMzG1gFdB65YU9NYxy2ZfFwMMs2G-tCobGq6lw9DX1M3UtT0LqfcxPj2ZzNP-/s320/Expansion_n%25C3%25A9olithique.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wiki</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
This was not the spread of ideas, this was large scale
movement of farmers, their crops and animals. They intermarried with the
nomadic and Mesolithic hunter-gatherers of Europe but they dominated them with
their superior numbers.They cleared virgin forests, tilled the soil and domesticated
local plants and animals. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It was perhaps in central and south eastern Europe
that saw their greatest achievements supported by a vast trade network. There
they lived in heavily fortified settlements, like Sesklo in Greece<b> </b>which
in<b> </b>5000 BC may have housed<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>an
incredible 5,000 people, one and half millennia before the
invention of the wheel and only a few hundred years after the first (Sumerian) city (Eridu in Mesopotamia) was said to be established. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Archaeologists have found the oldest gold treasure in the
world in Bulgaria (4,600 BC to 4,200 BC) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgslz5diyiYclOZSCMHOR1oMGTkf9HRmCZ132nvcNS7Yd0co7rw7MlLg5ST2yQQ312hfS11PKw1d9uTqbF3CXzTDTNqwncYJ0Q9PFzqdCWIgSB4zhLGI6JFo0Tr7MA5ZcI-UghXpCpmFWGP/s1600/1024px-Grave_offerings.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="781" data-original-width="1024" height="152" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgslz5diyiYclOZSCMHOR1oMGTkf9HRmCZ132nvcNS7Yd0co7rw7MlLg5ST2yQQ312hfS11PKw1d9uTqbF3CXzTDTNqwncYJ0Q9PFzqdCWIgSB4zhLGI6JFo0Tr7MA5ZcI-UghXpCpmFWGP/s200/1024px-Grave_offerings.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Varna necropolis, Bulgaria Wiki</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
the earliest evidence of copper
smelting in Serbia (5500-5000 BC, 1.5-2 millennia before the Copper Age) and the world's oldest salt mine in Hallstatt Austria (about 5,000 BC).</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The 'Old European culture' varied over time and distance but their numbers and sophistication continued to grow with the arrival of the potter’s wheel and ox-drawn carts.
A few archaeologists have even suggested some of their pottery symbols were a
form of proto-writing hundreds of years before the Sumerian pictograms. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It was they that built many of the first European megaliths, long
barrows and passage tombs. Some of the ‘mega settlements’ in central and South Western
Europe around Western Ukraine (4000–3500 BC) may have housed 20,000
to 46,000 people. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaYZ-wKwtggM1oTiK1FhG6ySmSWGilplqfeMvm61diFa3AvLjU0HMRz6flkDlqknktKDmGv5Y-lYlAjXbaYTyfj-aRoaXdxJuzQQ6Ur4x2R7LppM0pWlYNaiLd0xXDYsxlA3NYxiHug9fN/s1600/220px-Cromeleque_dos_Almendres1341.JPG" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="165" data-original-width="220" height="150" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaYZ-wKwtggM1oTiK1FhG6ySmSWGilplqfeMvm61diFa3AvLjU0HMRz6flkDlqknktKDmGv5Y-lYlAjXbaYTyfj-aRoaXdxJuzQQ6Ur4x2R7LppM0pWlYNaiLd0xXDYsxlA3NYxiHug9fN/s200/220px-Cromeleque_dos_Almendres1341.JPG" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Almendres Cromlech from 6,000 BC Portugal, Wiki</b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The first Neolithic farmers of old Europe reached their peak around 4,000 BC.<br />
Around
3,500 BC their population began to collapse relatively abruptly. In many
regions the depopulation was catastrophic. Britain lost 90
% of its Neolithic population in three hundred years. In a few areas it was almost 100%, in other areas it was less and a few areas were relatively spared. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
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<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Pelasgians, Minoans and Leleges (Greece), the Iberians
and Basques, the Nuragic people of Sardinia, the Sicans and the Elymians of
Sicily and the Etruscans are all suggested (with different levels of certainty)
to be related to these older Europeans. See my earlier discussion of the first people of Greece<span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;"> </span></span><span style="font-size: small;"><span class="s1"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/02/the-pelasgoi-forgotten-people-of-greece.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">here.</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The artwork of these ‘old Europeans’ lead the celebrated archaeologist Marija Gimbutas<b> </b>to suggest they were ‘matristic’ and
peaceful, worshiping the mother goddess and that they were overwhelmed by the war-like
‘paternal’ (fairer) Indo-Europeans pastoralists from the great Steppe, with their horses, weapons and male Gods.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMD7w2UJBVoRnDDAigGMxGbF8RvCZBiITwnOI2yvEn7qoj-Dr9HdDi4QJjVFAo9vD33tPH2hghVLc7sjPdgchBteHDTu5impERCUpAiQ-JM559ozOXt9q1-xAR-iJ3XqV1qLowrBrh_CvW/s1600/1024px-Hamangia_Muzeul_din_Constanta.JPG" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="718" data-original-width="1024" height="140" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhMD7w2UJBVoRnDDAigGMxGbF8RvCZBiITwnOI2yvEn7qoj-Dr9HdDi4QJjVFAo9vD33tPH2hghVLc7sjPdgchBteHDTu5impERCUpAiQ-JM559ozOXt9q1-xAR-iJ3XqV1qLowrBrh_CvW/s200/1024px-Hamangia_Muzeul_din_Constanta.JPG" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>Hamangia culture Bulgaria, wiki</b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
There is no positive evidence for such a whole
sale conflict and besides, the Indo-Europeans didn’t begin arriving in any numbers till 500 years <i>after </i>the start of the catastrophe, moving in to fill a relative vacuum.The Indo-Europeans weren't to finish their settlement of Europe till about 1,000 BC (towards the end of the European Bronze Age). </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>What happened to the missing Neolithic Farmers of old Europe?</b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
History is replete with examples of sudden inexplicable collapse and disappearance of Neolithic cultures and civilisations, leaving only sadness and mystery behind. The
usual ‘suspects’ warfare, climate change and soil exhaustion are not satisfactory here.
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The old Europeans were sophisticated farmers who knew all about
organic fertiliser and pasture rotation. The depopulation seemed to have hit
different areas at slightly different times but a population ‘bust’ seemed much more likely after exponential population growth, as if it was punishing success.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Perhaps the population growth made food security<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>more
precarious and unable to respond to an external shocks. In some cases there was an increase in population nearby suggesting people were fleeing from something.<br />
It is now suspected that the population density and unhygienic conditions led to an outbreak of disease, which spread from village to village over the trading routes. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
We already know just how devastating an epidemic can be in a population that has no natural immunity and the shift to Neolithic lifestyle made people much more vulnerable to epidemics.<br />
There was already a long tradition 6500 BC -2000 BC in central
and south-eastern Europe of villagers burning their whole
village and moving every eighty years or so. Sometimes they would return to an old site
much later and rebuild on the rubble. Was it denying another tribe use of the
village while allowing the land to lay fallow? Was there religious or social
reasons? We don’t really know, but it could have been related to vermin or disease.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
If it was to cope with disease, burning their homes and fleeing to other areas no longer worked for the Neolithic farmers. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The scale of devastation with some areas massively
depopulated (some less affected and a few relatively spared) is reminiscent of a later catastrophe,
the Black Death and it seems that they were dealing with something of similar virulence. In a previous article we discussed the evidence emerging that they were indeed dealing with first pandemic of the Plague, with an early primitive strain but at least equally as devastating.<span style="font-size: small;"><span class="s1"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/02/plague-brief-scientific-background.html"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span> </span><span class="MsoHyperlink">. </span><br />
<span class="MsoHyperlink">Where did the plague initially come from? </span> <span class="MsoHyperlink">We know its ancestor </span>Yersinia pseudotuberculosis came from the far east so this early form of Plague likely came via the Great Eurasian Steppe.<br />
It is pure speculation but possibly a more peaceful contact with Indo-European traders still proved fatal to the old people of Europe, long before the Indo-Europeans moved into Europe in any numbers.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span class="s1">Once again, I hope you enjoyed this blog. To see my novels, check out my Amazon Authors page <span style="line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri", sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span> or at your favourite e-book store<br />
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
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mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
mso-style-priority:99;
mso-style-parent:"";
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<div class="Myparagraph">
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In his 1936 book, <i>Man Makes Himself </i>the Marxist
archaeologist V. G. Childe coined the term ‘Neolithic Revolution’ to describe what was seen as a massive, even abrupt, change in society with the advent of the Neolithic Age and later the rise of cities. A 'revolution' became the the main metaphor to describe the Neolithic transition for the remainder of the Twentieth Century and yet it was not till the post-war period that Kathleen Kenyon, in her excavation at Jericho, gave us our first glimpse of this
transition period.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>Jericho</b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
What Kenyon found at Jericho (from 1951)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>was absolutely stunning.<br />
It showed frequent visits
from nomadic hunter gatherers<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and then a
long gap during a severe cold dry period which was followed by a permanent village of
rounded mud huts sunk into the ground.<br />
The village became very large (2,000 -3,000 people) with a truly massive tower and a great stone wall.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjykq13a8TdVMa4d1YR_EL3EJCLqdXx6AnyxlJRKvaF7u3PiVOisi-anUHfzEUwz-RA3H27JukAsdOoINLfXylEbnP7-sVnRjUbE3u7lbOIgchCRG63jOXFDFB6eakAKfFZxyUr80oM3OgG/s1600/Tower+of+Jericoh%252C+PPNA+wiki.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1073" data-original-width="800" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjykq13a8TdVMa4d1YR_EL3EJCLqdXx6AnyxlJRKvaF7u3PiVOisi-anUHfzEUwz-RA3H27JukAsdOoINLfXylEbnP7-sVnRjUbE3u7lbOIgchCRG63jOXFDFB6eakAKfFZxyUr80oM3OgG/s200/Tower+of+Jericoh%252C+PPNA+wiki.jpg" width="146" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The massive PPN-A Jericho </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Kenyon was looking at an impressive Neolithic people from the very dawn of Neolithic times and yet they had not yet invented pottery, previously thought to be one of the hallmarks of the Neolithic period. She called them Pre-pottery
Neolithic A, PPN-A <b>(</b>10,000–8,800 BC). </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It seemed that nomadic hunter-gathers in the Levant were the very first people to turn to
Neolithic farming, and it was in response to this severe and prolonged drought.<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
</div>
But is this what really happened?<br />
That nomadic
hunter-gatherers with no experience of cultivation suddenly become
sedentary and planted their first crop (and then waited and hoped) in response to running out of food in
the midst of a millennial drought seems an unlikely explanation.<br />
The problem with Jericho is that it only showed nomadic hunter gatherers and there was a gap of 1200 yrs between their presence and the PPN-A.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Coming back to nomadic hunter-gatherers. They already
have an incredible knowledge of beneficial plants, berries, nuts and seeds in
the wild and how and where they grew. They know not to denude areas of
beneficial plants, and leave some to grow back for their next visit. Further more, they know to
scatter beneficial seeds, nuts or mushroom spores in suitable places for next
year, or when they returned, and they know about fire. Even the hunter gathers of this time knew how to fish, build
reed and wooden boats and canoes. They knew enough to try cultivation but, to be able to wait around for their crop, they had to
build permanent settlements.<br />
To do that. they had to find enough forage
locally to allow them to settle in one spot and build permanent settlements. How did this come about?</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>The oldest evidence so far.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Fishing villages were likely to be amongst the first
permanent hunter-gatherer camps. The 1989 and 1999 excavations of a small fishing village on
the shore of Galilea (‘Ohalo II people's camp’) found remains that dated to 21000 BC,
an incredible eleven millennia before the PPNA. The villagers lived in brush
huts. They had grinding stones and sickles and there was conclusive evidence of
crop cultivation of ‘wild’ varieties of emmer (wheat), barley, and oats. <span style="color: cyan; font-size: small; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 17.12px;"><a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/07/150722144709.htm"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 17.12px;">see here </span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7IRf7BnC1McimZMoK9froBNbbcdN7dwtF3PuqehDm2vJXaljZDL6_bLKeAOnmAZtgbDVO_HcejwRgIhv404BqtjMOFSZR20TAIszU-DAlunFzBrN_xZkDSdG3Kfl_lkwb0HOF8Kwlk4IF/s1600/447px-The-Levant-is.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="447" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7IRf7BnC1McimZMoK9froBNbbcdN7dwtF3PuqehDm2vJXaljZDL6_bLKeAOnmAZtgbDVO_HcejwRgIhv404BqtjMOFSZR20TAIszU-DAlunFzBrN_xZkDSdG3Kfl_lkwb0HOF8Kwlk4IF/s200/447px-The-Levant-is.svg.png" width="186" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">the ancient Levant</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The climate in the Levant is not a good one for preserving
evidence of cultivation but this site was unusually well preserved, having been
charred and covered by lake sediment, sealing it in low-oxygen conditions. Previous
evidence of grinding stones, grain, sickles, bread making (and even beer production) several
millennia before PPN-A were stubbornly dismissed with claims the grain had simply been foraged. The Fisher folk of Ohalo II were hardly Neolithic farmers, they likely had (relatively) small ‘wild’
gardens to supplement their main occupations (fishing and hunter-gathering) still this shows how agriculture first developed.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>The LGM and the Mesolithic Age <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1M-tTXOTWUo4cV0OWTnNQV3Igw1c17o86WEgudoVm5vg4BMt20fbFAJ6RtI8jZRdtyt3j3BG9BkwvszYqpaFv_F-mBieppI0eCsc4XXV9AWVw-rPooMzWwa8VSBPPmBcFHKCS_mkZTGkB/s1600/Evolution_of_temperature_in_the_Post-Glacial_period_according_to_Greenland_ice_cores+2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="445" data-original-width="1600" height="110" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1M-tTXOTWUo4cV0OWTnNQV3Igw1c17o86WEgudoVm5vg4BMt20fbFAJ6RtI8jZRdtyt3j3BG9BkwvszYqpaFv_F-mBieppI0eCsc4XXV9AWVw-rPooMzWwa8VSBPPmBcFHKCS_mkZTGkB/s400/Evolution_of_temperature_in_the_Post-Glacial_period_according_to_Greenland_ice_cores+2.jpg" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Estimated temps,Greenland Ice cores, Wiki</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) marks the last (recent)
time when glaciers were at their peak. It lasted 7,000 years, being coldest up
to the end which was (roughly) 16,000-17,000 BC. (I will use BC. To convert to BP remember the 2,000 year difference). </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In Europe during the LGM, most life retreated into small
remaining refuges. Elsewhere most, not all, of the rest of the world was considerably
drier and seas were at a low levels. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
As the glaciers began retreating, the world became warmer
and wetter. There was a period (12,670 to 10,890 BC) of rapid warming. In the
middle East, deserts shrank (to far less than we have today) being replaced by
forests and cereal-rich grass lands. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In Europe, animals and people began moving back in as the
glaciers retreated. Now, there was a profusion of lakes, rivers and marshlands
(offering lots of fish, birds, water weeds and reeds) and the sea was kinder. Land based life also teemed. Villagers of sedentary
hunter-gathers abounded.<b> </b><br />
<b>The ‘Mesolithic Age’</b> had arrived. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The new sedentary hunter-gatherers could build permanent
structures and larger communities (100-150 people). In general there was a
movement away from heavy reliance on hunting larger animals to more general
hunter gathering. They used improved, smaller, lithic tools. They could have more
possessions, and they could build long term food storage, a major advance. Of
course, they could do all that because there was enough forage, and they had the techniques to harvest and store it so they didn't have to employ a nomadic life style.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It was the Mesolithic settlements that formed a clear bridge to the Neolithic. The
Swedish archaeologist, Kurt Stjerna used the term ‘Proto-neolithic’. Some use ‘Epipalaeolithic’, but this
term is broader and less precise.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Note: Even in Neolithic times, there was a mix of fishing villagers and hunter-gathers as well and even Neolithic villagers would hunt, fish and gather wild plants.
The earliest transition from the Mesolithic to Neolithic </span></i><i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">was in some ways </span></i>subtle, one of emphasis. There was an increase of the degree of energy put into crop
cultivation and a predominant reliance on crops as a source of food.</span></i></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<i><b><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-style: normal;">When did the first Neolithic farmers appear?</span></b></i></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-style: normal;">Neolithic transitions have occurred in several
sites in the world </span></i>(e.g. North and South America, the Yellow river in China and the highlands of New Guinea) <i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-style: normal;">but the first ever was in the Levant. </span></i></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The main Mesolithic culture in the Levant was called ‘Natufian’
(12,000 to 9,500 BC) but closely related people established similar settlements
all across Northern Africa and the Nile valley. Crops included things like wheat,
barley, lentils, and types of peas.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In the Mesolithic Age, trade became greatly increased
with (<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-style: normal;">laboriously</span></i><i> </i>ground) stone utensils,
marine molluscs and <span style="mso-font-width: 105%;">seashells. Obsidian,<span style="letter-spacing: .7pt;"> beautiful </span>malachite (green stone),<span style="letter-spacing: -.45pt;"> </span>salt,<span style="letter-spacing: -.7pt;"> </span>bitumen<span style="letter-spacing: -.15pt;"> </span></span>and other minerals were mined and
traded as far as Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Western Iran. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
There was even the beginnings of ‘cottage industries’
abundant production (of bone tools,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>basketry and matting), made for trade. Flax (linen) was used, they fired
clay, extracted lime (from burning sea shells) and used ochre.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Natufians also turned out their ‘whole’ village to hunt
(and process the hunt) from passing migratory herds of gazelle. Gazelle thrived
in this period, reducing the reliance on Mesolithic style fishing but still requiring
a sedentary life style to preserve, store and protect the bounteous food. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-style: normal;">Once we have large and complex settlements such
as Jericho in the middle to later PPN-A period, it is easier to see they were Neolithic,
but otherwise the archaeology of the Mesolithic Natufian and the early PPN-A is identical.
It is not possible to know when the transition from one to the other occurred.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fortunately, we do have a firm suspect.</span></i></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>The Younger ‘Dryas’ (</b>10,900 to 9,700 BC) </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Mesolithic world was thriving with the new conducive
environment until 10,900 BC when disaster struck. The temperature abruptly
dropped to glacial levels in as little as a decade, maybe even less. And it
lasted about 1,200 hundred years, it was called the Younger Dryas. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
‘Dryas’ is a European alpine (tundra) flower that becomes more
abundant in glacial times and increases in (lake) sediments. Dryas-like cooling events
are a part of warming after glaciation and two such events had already occurred (hence ‘the youngest’) but they were nothing like this. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The ‘Younger Dryas’ is generally thought to be due to the
melting of a vast sheet of ice covering well beyond the region of the Great Lakes
in North America, causing the release of cold fresh water and disturbing the
flow of warm water from the Equator. There is also evidence of a volcanic
eruption in Germany and a comet event that <i>might</i> have been around this
time. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In the Levant most of the forests, meadows and waterways
vanished and deserts surged back. The devastation must have been incredible. Most
of the starving Natufians would be forced to abandon their permanent encampments
and return to nomadic hunter gathering. A few Mesolithic
enclaves survived (e.g. North-West Syria) and it was the likely that those Mesolithic hunters and
gathers were forced to rely more heavily on cultivation, and even simple
irrigation, just to survive. <b>The Neolithic Age</b> was born, but it was out
of a terrible catastrophe.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
So this transition to Neolithic farming first came in the
Levant but it had a long prodromal phase in the local Mesolithic Age. We don’t know for
sure, but the transition likely came during the catastrophe of the Younger Dryas.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>Subsequent Progress. </b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Neolithic farming rapidly spread over the Middle East to nearby
people who were not genetically Natufians.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
By 8,000 BC in Mesopotamia the 'domestic' strains of plants (selected for their benefit to
humans) had become noticeably different to wild species (selected by Darwinian 'natural' selection in the wild). This is the proper meaning of 'domestication'.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Taming of farm animals came about the same time, with goats
at <span class="e24kjd">Ganj Dareh (in Western </span>Iran's Zagros Mountains). Suddenly,
goat bones at this site showed very few mature male goats, the usual target of
hunter-gatherers. The younger Dryas had finished around 9,700 BC and the
Neolithic Age is usually said to start ‘about’ 10,000 BC. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The whole Middle East had a rich trade
network in Mesolithic and Neolithic times and the idea of taming animals spread far faster than any new herds of goats from Iran.
At first, it involved other Neolithic populations taming their local animals.
Genetics show that Anatolia became the main source of modern domestic goat
genes.<br />
Sheep were soon tamed (in Mesopotamia)
and cattle and pigs followed not long after. The taming of sheep and goats soon gave rise
to herding and then nomadic herding, which could extend Neolithic populations into lands not suitable for cultivation and spread farm animals into regions they were not native or where hunting had made them scarce. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Of course, there was a spectacular rise in population and social complexity but, from time to time, there were sudden local unexplained depopulation events.
One such was at the end of the PPN-A (8,500 BC) in Jericho which was abandoned for
three hundred years. It seemed to involve several other local sites so the early
Neolithic farmers died out, they didn’t just move locally. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
We don’t know what happened, it could have been an epidemic or
local climate change. Other unexplained depopulation events occurred in other regions at
different times in early Neolithic times. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jericho was not
repopulated until 8,800 BC when a second group moved in, which Kenyon called
PPN-B.<br />
This group had adopted rectangular houses (from other
regions) and had different burial practices. It was a movement of people, not just ideas, but excavations (e.g. Tell Qaramel) show they were from Northern
Syria and had evolved there from NPP-A . <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These
new settlers had embraced a number of innovations such as domestication
of farm animals and were able to move into more arid areas that the NPP-A farmers
were unable to conquer.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Settlements became larger and more complicated but they
were still not cities. They were still predominantly occupied by farmers, so they were large farming villages.<br />
It was not until the establishment of the first cities in
Southern Mesopotamia (e.g. Eridu about 5400 BC ) supported by several
surrounding villages that civilisation had arrived.<br />
<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
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The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-3751718453500887942020-03-04T16:07:00.000-08:002020-03-31T20:58:14.015-07:00The Plague a snapshot, 3,000 BC till today <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: small; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan; font-size: small;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">home page</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span><br />
<span style="color: cyan; font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: black;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/02/plague-brief-scientific-background.html"><span style="color: cyan; font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">(first </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2020/02/plague-brief-scientific-background.html"><span style="color: cyan; font-size: x-small;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Blog, the scientific background, click here)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> </a></span></b></div>
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;">Plague, a very brief History</span></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Imagine if you will an illness that could easily spread from
person to person and result in death within a couple of days. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An illness that could spread through a city
like wildfire and (during the Black Death) kill 60% of population. In some areas it
was 80 percent and whole areas were depopulated as the few survivors fled. A few areas were relatively spared and while some of this was understandable, some of it was completely inexplicable, as if the disease was striking at random.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjb280LUW3H8ApH9fKHIPYi4Uc66A7mbJstRxirDmnKikpwlxqPzxbdIj-mY9gXqOjjh__LVG_w2hFGPnlsPM8wz-nhzcXk9TKlfTpiobAhp-HlPs1akPcSxWKIidUZr5Cr3umFnJTNjI49/s1600/Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%252C_France_1720-1721.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="447" data-original-width="600" height="148" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjb280LUW3H8ApH9fKHIPYi4Uc66A7mbJstRxirDmnKikpwlxqPzxbdIj-mY9gXqOjjh__LVG_w2hFGPnlsPM8wz-nhzcXk9TKlfTpiobAhp-HlPs1akPcSxWKIidUZr5Cr3umFnJTNjI49/s200/Bubonic_plague_victims-mass_grave_in_Martigues%252C_France_1720-1721.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Mass Grave <a href="https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/13/2/06-0197-f1"><span class="mw-mmv-source-author"><span class="mw-mmv-author"><span style="color: cyan; font-size: small;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">1720-21</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> </span></span></a><span class="mw-mmv-source-author"><span class="mw-mmv-author">Epidemic, France</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Nowhere was safe. It could cross city
walls. Contact with a victim was not needed.It was an enemy that became simply known as 'The Pestilence' or 'The Plague'.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<i>“They died by the hundreds, both day and night, and all
were thrown in ... ditches and covered with earth. And as soon as those ditches
were filled, more were dug. ...I ... buried my five children with my own hands
... So many died that all believed it was the end of the world.” </i>Agnolo di
Tura (14th century, Sienna) </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Plague in humans has been detected both in Europe and Central
Asia as far back as 5,000 years ago, suggesting it was already widespread by
that time. While the Bronze Age had already started in Mesopotamia, it would
take another 500 years to reach these regions technically this was still in late Neolithic times.<br />
There were three massive pandemics of 'plague' in recorded history and the likelihood of a Pandemic in prehistory. Added to that, there were<i> countless</i> localised epidemics. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>A prehistoric Pandemic. </b>In the first blog, I talked of the evidence emerging that a
primitive form of plague caused the near extinction of the first Neolithic farmers in
Europe, not long before the arrival of Indo-Europeans <span style="font-size: small;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/12/181206120035.htm" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">(see here)</span></a></span></span>. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>The Justinian Plague</b> was the next pandemic (541–542 AD) coming
from Egypt. It is said to have killed 13–26% of the population of the middle east, Europe and Northern
Africa. Some historians think it might have killed more than that. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
<b>The Black Death.</b> (1347 to 1351 in Europe) is the most famous pandemic of all and the worst pandemic ever encountered. It is described
as <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“the Greatest Catastrophe to ever
visit mankind” (<span class="e24kjd">Ole J. Benedictow)<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihcshOUQeLnXhCy4dJAzGZFhyD0TnBxvd9VUX4zqyKrvUCzQR3vgpzpVLk0_GCGDgeF5znVIGRxMOtAyAV0HUqEw37lSEkddVeEQCHbp9LdHh-6B5n7Piv5Rnfnes8e94KPwIbJqqurpj7/s1600/687px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="600" data-original-width="687" height="279" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihcshOUQeLnXhCy4dJAzGZFhyD0TnBxvd9VUX4zqyKrvUCzQR3vgpzpVLk0_GCGDgeF5znVIGRxMOtAyAV0HUqEw37lSEkddVeEQCHbp9LdHh-6B5n7Piv5Rnfnes8e94KPwIbJqqurpj7/s320/687px-1346-1353_spread_of_the_Black_Death_in_Europe_map.svg.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Spread of the Black Death (Flappiefh, Wiki) </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span> </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>Siege of Kaffa</b>. Most accounts start with Gabriele de’ Mussi’s classic
account of the siege of Kaffa (Caffa). Kaffa (modern day <span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Feodosia) on the
Crimean coast was bought by the Genoese off the Golden Horde in </span>1266 and it (along with other
settlements and enclaves) allowed them to dominate the trade throughout the
Black Sea region.<br />
Associated with river traffic (e.g. <span class="e24kjd">Danube,
Dnieper, Dniester, Don and Kuban Rivers) it allowed them deep access into the
hinterland, which included lucrative trade with the heart of Mongolian (Mongolian/Turkic) occupied
Russia</span>. <span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">It became one of the
worlds most celebrated ports and one of Europe’s largest slave markets.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In 1307 Toqtai Kahn expelled the Europeans (after a year’s
siege) for trading in Turkic slaves, but they were invited back by his
successor and they built bigger and stronger than ever. In 1343 there was a
religious brawl in Kana near Constantinople where a Moslem was killed. The ‘perpetrators’
(and a great many others) fled to Kaffa. The people of Kaffa refused to hand them over
to the Moslem authorities but now they faced Jani beg, a proud and militarily
aggressive<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kahn with a large army. He
besieged Kaffa<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in 1343, but was defeated
by an Italian expeditionary force in February 1344. He returned in 1345 for another year and Gabriele de’ Mussi takes up the story:</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<i>“Oh God! See how the heathen Tartar races, pouring
together from all sides, suddenly invested the city of Kaffa and besieged the
trapped Christians there for almost three years. There, hemmed in by an immense
army, they could hardly draw breath, although food could be shipped in, which
offered them some hope. </i></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<i>“But behold, the whole army was affected by a disease
which overran the Tartars and killed thousands upon thousands every day. It was
as though arrows were raining down from heaven to strike and crush the Tartars’
arrogance. All medical advice and attention was useless; the Tartars died as
soon as the signs of disease appeared on their bodies: swellings in the armpit
or groin caused by coagulating humours, followed by a putrid fever.</i></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<i>“The dying Tartars... lost interest in the siege. But
they ordered corpses to be placed in catapults and lobbed into the city in the
hope that the intolerable stench would kill everyone inside. What seemed like
mountains of dead were thrown into the city, and the Christians could not hide
or flee or escape from them, although they dumped as many of the bodies as they
could in the sea. And soon the rotting corpses tainted the air and poisoned the
water supply ... one infected man could carry the poison to others, and infect
people and places with the disease by look alone.”</i></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
He goes on to describe that the fleeing sailors took the
plague to the European ports.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<cite><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">" Alas! our ships enter the port, but of a thousand sailors
hardly ten are spared. We reach our homes; our kindred and our neighbours come
from all parts to visit us. Woe to us for we cast at them the darts of death!
Whilst we spoke to them, whilst they embraced us and kissed us, we scattered the
poison from our lips. Going back to their homes, they in turn soon infected
their whole families, who in three days succumbed, and were buried in one
common grave.” </span></cite></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
His <cite><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-style: normal;">compelling account, some of which is written in the first
person has become part of established dogma
even through to today. Historical documents show him to be in Sienna, not in Kaffa, at the
time of the siege and there are just too many contradictions for his account be
accepted. </span></cite></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
While the besieging Mongols may not have known that throwing corpses over the wall<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>would <i>not</i> be very effective, they didn't need to do it, rats would have breached the city fortifications
and the plague would already be raging throughout the city. Muslims would not disrespect their own dead in this way.<br />
It is true that the Crusaders had catapulted the heads of Moslem (civilian) captives over fortress walls in the past, but whole bodies that had died of the plague? The highly paid contractors that built and maintained the ‘counterweight trebuchets’ would hardly agree to such grisly work. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Plague spread from Crimea in a slower, step-wise fashion and took a year to reach Europe, which is not in keeping with de’ Mussi’s account. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
However it gained entry, the Black Death is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of the
population of Europe and devastated the Middle East and
Northern Africa,. It took 200 years and more for Europe’s population to recover.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>Asia and the Black Death</b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The 'Black Death' pandemic originated in the North West China (1331). By 1393 census the population of China had dropped an incredible 50%. Of
course, China was in considerable chaos at the time between plague, famine and
rebellions that saw an end to the Mongol rule in China. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
There was also massive depopulation all over the great Steppe
as far as the Korean Peninsula. How India escaped this time is another puzzle.<br />
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="9" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="heading 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="index 9"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="toc 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="footer"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
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<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>The ‘Third Plague Pandemic’</b>, starting in China in 1855, was the weakest of the three
and faced the most effective response and yet ten million died in<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> the first onslaught <i>in </i></span><i>British India alone</i> and a further 12.5
million over the next thirty years.</div>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span class="narrative"><b>Recurrence is the rule.</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="narrative">In the three historical pandemics, Plague
didn’t rage through a community and then disappear. Characteristically there would
be frequent highly lethal recurrences, becoming less frequent over time. The third Pandemic wasn't declared 'over' by the WHO till </span><span class="narrative">1960 when world wide cases dropped to 200/ year.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="narrative">In </span>Britain
the Black Death two years at first 1348- 1349 where it killed over 40% of the population.
It returned in 1361–62, this time with 20% mortality. There were milder
recurrences throughout the 14th and 15th centuries, the last outbreak being the
Great Plague of London in 1665–66 which killed about a quarter of London’s
population over an eighteen month period.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Justinian Plague 541–542 AD kept flaring up especially
in the first 50 years, the last time being 750 AD. Evagrius Scholasticus from
Antioch in Syria describes four recurrences in his life time. The first gave
him bubonic plague while he was a school boy. Other recurrences caused the
death of ‘several of my children, my wife, and many of my kin, as well as of my
domestic and country servants’ . The fourth one was when he was fifty six and he
lost “a daughter and her son”. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
These recurrences didn't seem to be the emergence of a new strain, but from a re-infection of the local rodent populations. The Plague of those times remained dormant for periods in a way we don't understand even today.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b>Quarantine</b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Our forbears may have thought disease to be initiated by miasma (tainted air
given off by rubbish and dead bodies), along with various supernatural explanations, but we shouldn't dismiss their intelligence or their powers of shrewd observation.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In an effort to deal with the frequent recurrences , a
sophisticated and effective system of containment was devised. Isolation (to
deal with leprosy) was well known since biblical times and in 1377 ‘quarantine’
was first introduced in Dubrovnik, where visitors had to wait in isolation for
thirty days to make sure they didn’t have the plague before they entered the
city. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Venice became foremost in developing systems to controlling
spread, building the first plague hospital or 'lazaretto' 1423 on a small island
and going on to perfect a system of maritime cordons. Merchandise from ships
was unloaded to designated buildings. Procedures for so-called “purgation” of
the various products were prescribed in minute bureaucratic detail; wool, yarn, cloth, leather,
wigs, and blankets were considered the products most likely to transmit disease.
Treatment of the goods consisted of continuous ventilation. Wax and sponge were
immersed in running water for 48 hours.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The ship's captain needed to obtain a certificate of the
sanitary status of a port of origin. He also needed to certify the health of
his crew. Once there was an outbreak, a ship arriving from such a port needed
to fly a yellow flag and lookouts were stationed on the church tower of San
Marco to identify them. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The captain was taken in a lifeboat to the health
magistrate’s office and was kept in an enclosure where he spoke through a
closed window. If ordered to the quarantine station, passengers and crew were isolated
and the vessel was thoroughly fumigated and retained for 40 days to see if
cases would emerge. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="st">The word "</span><i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">quarantine</span></i><span class="st">" originates from Italian quaranta giorni, meaning "forty
days". </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b>Why were the ancient ancient pandemics, so much worse?</b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Plague can be treated with antibiotics but even today, <i>untreated</i> Septicaemic and Pneumonic forms of plague are usually
rapidly fatal, and even (untreated) the Bubonic
form still has a terrifying mortality 30-40%. Transmission via infected material is not <i>totally </i>impossible but can be avoided by simple precautions, so most contemporary forms of plague do
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBqXNVhQxjKEHsK0QwWmB83oRkeqHf4-LzZMTMID1LtPk2oAAdGGBHh-OEjPSGAw_OABtmq9Z59QmRjbQ-ZO-6fwjz_et0vDCskeCjYv6nBMnYKc3dErnuxykWtYXAX_UdAfg8Ifw4eWAt/s1600/World_distribution_of_plague_1998.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="469" data-original-width="700" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBqXNVhQxjKEHsK0QwWmB83oRkeqHf4-LzZMTMID1LtPk2oAAdGGBHh-OEjPSGAw_OABtmq9Z59QmRjbQ-ZO-6fwjz_et0vDCskeCjYv6nBMnYKc3dErnuxykWtYXAX_UdAfg8Ifw4eWAt/s320/World_distribution_of_plague_1998.PNG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">World wide distribution of Plague 1998</td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
not carry much of a risk of person to person spread.<i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Uncomplicated
bubonic plague is not contagious and patients do not place their family, other social contacts or care givers at risk”</i>. New
Mexico Dept of health 2013.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Bubonic form almost always comes from a flea bite and the Septicaemic
form (10-15% of cases) is most commonly a complication of the Bubonic form. Neither is particularly infectious (unless they spread to the lungs). It is only the uncommon Pneumonic form (usually 5% of cases)
(and the very rare pharyngeal form) that are highly infectious.<br />
The Pneumonic form is usually contacted directly or may be a rare complication of the Septicaemic form. Sometimes contemporary epidemics may involve a very high
proportion of the especially dangerous Pneumonic cases, most likely when the infection is spread by
close contact from other Pneumonic cases. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The role of rats (or another rodent) and their fleas was discovered in 1898 (Paul-Louis Simond) and remains the cornerstone of our understanding of transmission of contemporary
plague but it is so persuasive and fits so well with our current (limited) contemporary experience that it is still unquestioned by many as <i>the</i> only significant means of spread of the common bubonic form.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Our contemporary experience does not explain previous Pandemics </b></div>
<b> </b>Contemporary experience does not explain the speed of
spread, the (even greater) lethality, some clinical aspects and the much higher person to person spread seen in the first two 'historical' pandemics.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the past, this has caused some historians to question whether it was Y. Pestis or something else. Researchers have been able to show Plague DNA in
the dental root canal of victims and while some descriptions of symptoms are ambiguous,
many are not. So yes, it was Plague.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b>Were the reports exaggerated? </b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<cite><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">“Oh happy people of the future, who have not known these miseries
and perchance will class our testimony with the fables”. </span></cite>Francesco
Petrarca, Italian renaissance poet and scholar. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Poorer hygiene, poorer rat control and diet <i>may</i> have made
our forbears more vulnerable. Recent research on<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the so called ‘human flea’ suggests a new vector
that could facilitate human to human spread, even of the Bubonic form.<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Has 'Herd' Immunity Grown Greater? </b></div>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
While an individual who survived the plague only had partial immunity, Mihai
Netea (at Radboud University) was able to show people from countries exposed to
the Black Death had (over many centuries) evolved changes in their immune system that made them more
resistant to the Plague. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Are we dealing with different strains that behaved differently? </b></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
This is a rather a rhetorical question, because we know that different strains of Y.Pestis can have subtle and not so subtle clinical differences, they can differ biochemically and have differences in their plasmids, the significance of which we don't fully understand. </div>
<b> </b>The<b> </b>most primitive form of plague in
Neolithic times did not block the digestion of the rat
flea and yet it seems to have been catastrophically devastating . One idea is that it had to be the far more dangerous Pneumonic form. In the first blog I discussed fleas that could transmit plague without being 'blocked'. Recent suspicion is directed at the (so called) 'human flea' which could result in human-to-human transmission without the need for rodents. We just don’t know. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Italian writer <span class="description">Giovanni
Boccaccio wrote 'the </span><span class="e24kjd">Decameron'. The background story is a small group
that hides out from </span>1348 epidemic in Florence, and pass the time by telling
amusing tales but he also describes his own observations of the disease: “<span class="narrative">certain swellings in the groin or under the armpit ... soon
after ...<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>black or purple spots appeared
... a certain sign of death.” </span><br />
<span class="narrative">This suggests that during the Black Death a large number of cases
of the normal Bubonic form rampantly proceeded to the fatal septicaemic form.Reports of people coughing up blood
might suggest some or even many of the septicaemic forms involved the lungs, making direct
human to human transmission more likely and, of course, Pneumonic forms are very dangerous, spreading and killing quickly.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="narrative">Not only were people of Europe and
Asia more vulnerable to the plague, in the Justinian Plague, the Black Death and maybe in the Neolithic Plague they encountered particularly deadly
strains that behaved somewhat differently. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="narrative">Apart from the massive loss of life from
these pandemics, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>lethal recurrences and
food shortages (e.g. </span>England’s population declined from 7 million to
2 million in 1400) there were widespread social consequences. It is said
that the Black Death contributed to the end of Serfdom in Western Europe. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Justinian Plague was said to have prevented the
Byzantines being able to hold their conquests in Italy and Northern Africa when they had tried to take back the western part of the Roman Empire. It may have aided the Anglo-Saxon conquest of England.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
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The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-72297656528610935962020-02-05T19:56:00.001-08:002020-03-31T20:51:08.332-07:00Plague, a Brief Scientific Background<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 6"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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</w:LatentStyles>
</xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]>
<style>
/* Style Definitions */
table.MsoNormalTable
{mso-style-name:"Table Normal";
mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0;
mso-tstyle-colband-size:0;
mso-style-noshow:yes;
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<br />
<div align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></b><b><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
Without any doubt Yersinia pestis<i> </i>is the greatest catastrophe to
ever visit mankind. ‘Yersinia’ is a family of bacteria and ‘pestis’ is short
for ‘pestilence'. It became known as 'The Plague' or simply 'plague' </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
"<i>Yersinia pestis</i> is the nastiest thing alive.
It's the most virulent bacterial organism known to mankind.” Olaf Schneewind.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%;">How
Bacteria Evolve</span></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">Bacteria can evolve by two methods: </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">(a) mutation. This often results in a
defective gene but sometimes it can be successful. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">(b) the major method of bacterial evolution is receiving genetic
material<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from another bacteria.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">The donating bacteria sends a bundle of
genes that ‘teaches’ the receiver how to survive in different environments, resist antibiotics or fight a host’s
resistance, something the donating bacterium can already do. It is more common with related species but
can occur across species and then it results in a major change in the recipient. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">There are three ways this transfer of
genetic material can happen.</span><span class="s1"> </span><br />
<span class="s1"><b>1.</b> Certain viruses (phages) attack bacteria.
They replicate viruses inside their host by placing their own genetic material
inside the bacterial DNA.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eventually they
will release a protein that dissolves the cell membrane and kills their host,
spreading the infection. Some, ‘temperate’ phages don’t immediately kill their bacterial
host, being content to survive inside it for a time. They even protect their
host in several ways, one of which might be introducing genetic material that is
helpful to the host, often taken from elsewhere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bacteria have their own immune system so they
may survive the viral attack and keep the genetic ‘gift’.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">The more important way bacteria can give
and receive new genes (and abilities) in a process called conjugation, where two </span>bacteria construct a bridge-like connection joining their protoplasm.
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiubR_GvTXbh3VaYogbbOsDoDXyIvBaShqjbNQdLRGoXJmLvAQTXtTznt84QKyeIg02fadEs_WCTF2t-qyhba18cp6F_EymJmvWhBettuvVoXsPoCB3GMNMcqOGKz2JSsBrw-wqTTgBLS0h/s1600/Conjugative_plasmids.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="253" data-original-width="365" height="138" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiubR_GvTXbh3VaYogbbOsDoDXyIvBaShqjbNQdLRGoXJmLvAQTXtTznt84QKyeIg02fadEs_WCTF2t-qyhba18cp6F_EymJmvWhBettuvVoXsPoCB3GMNMcqOGKz2JSsBrw-wqTTgBLS0h/s200/Conjugative_plasmids.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Transfer of a plasmid (wiki)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1"><b>2.</b> In one form, the ‘host’ detects that the
recipient is missing useful genetic material and makes a copy of a section of
its own DNA which it sends across the bridge between the two cells. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1"><b>3.</b> Presumably this process is the origin of
the third and maybe the most important form of transfer, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the copying and transfer of a bundle of useful genetic material called ‘</span>plasmids’. Plasmids
are <span class="s1">small circular independent DNA fragments separate to the
main genes of the cell and having the power to replicate independently of the
rest of the DNA. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">Of course, evolution of a particular (strain or) species of bacteria using Plasmids isn’t
as simple as that. Once transferred the plasmid has to find a way to live and
replicate in the (new cell or) new species, and the receiving bacterium has
to evolve (through natural selection and more genetic changes) to make use of
what the plasmid is offering it, if that is possible.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Evolution of Y. Pestis</span></b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">Sometime in the late Neolithic period,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Y. Pestis evolved from Yersinia
pseudotuberculosis<i>,</i> a soil-living bacterial infection that can
cause colitis in rodents (and other animals). It can rarely be transmitted to
humans through ingestion (e.g. water contaminated by faeces). It is very
different type of infection to plague and while it can be nasty enough,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>it is usually not fatal or spread from human
to human. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">Y. Pestis is like nothing seen
before or since.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">Like all infections, there are different
strains, there is something like 36 known strains of Y. Pestis (some living,
some extinct) and several have significantly differences between them. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
What makes Plague so virulent is only just starting to be
understood with recent major advances in DNA analysis but contradictory
opinions still abound.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
With the change from Y. Pseudotuberculosis to Y. Pestis
there was the addition of at least 6 genes and inactivation of as much as 13%
of its genome. (It doesn’t want to waste its resources producing proteins it no
longer needs). This gives an idea of the tremendous change in life style it
underwent. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
New plasmids were added. Many of these aren’t held in
common across all species of Y. Pestis and are referred to as ‘cryptic’ (role
unknown). Even for those we think we understand, there are variations in size of
the same plasmid, so plasmids in different strains that we have given the same
name to may have different amounts of genetic material. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Three plasmids are involved in the virulence of <i>Y.
pestis</i>.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(a) ‘pYV’ was
already present in Y. Pseudotuberculosis and is especially nasty. It gives rise
to something called the ‘type III secretion’ system. The surface of the
bacteria produce needle-like probes which can detect environmental conditions
and attach to host cells and inject toxins directly into them, killing the cell,
avoiding the extracellular fluid and avoiding much of the immune response.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Worse, it preferentially attacks the body’s first
responders (macrophages, neutrophils, or dendritic cells) crippling the immune
response and allowing the infection to establish itself inside lymph tissue. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
Perhaps this is why surviving an episode of plague only
gives partial immunity. It may be part of why frequent recurrences of the same
strain of Y. Pestis in the same area is the rule rather than the exception. Sometimes
the same patient can be re-infected by the same strain. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The plague may form a reservoir in wild rodents, waiting
to re-infect, and while it doesn’t like fresh air and sunshine it can remain in
soil and water in endemic areas. It can live inside the single celled organism
amoeba proteus that likes to swallow and digest bacteria.Whether soil and water reservoirs can contribute to
recurrences (through ingestion, mainly by rodents but possibly other animals
and even humans) is unknown.<span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: 11.5pt; line-height: 200%;">Two
additional plasmids are </span>unique to most strains of Y. Pestis. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
b) The first one <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pPCP1
is critical importance and allowed Y.Pestis to attack the respiratory system
(Pneumonic Plague) and blood (Septicaemic Plague), both clinical variants are almost
always fatal if untreated.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The primitive form of Y. Pestis was able to totally devastate
neolithic communities throughout the West but we are unsure of how it manifested
and how it spread, more on this in next month's blog.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>The next step and the rat flea.</b></div>
Around 2,000 BC (during the Bronze Age) the pestilence
evolved again by the incorporation of another major plasmid. It was a quantum
change what was already a very dangerous infection. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
This third important plasmid (called the pFra or pMT1) gave
Y. Pestis a number of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>adaptations that
allowed it to colonise and block the rodent flea’s midgut.</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBqhQ2GfFH81CRP-EwjyCMybHfKDj_fDcirWcNJoT7LLk-RF4chBBSGG7TkwnmV87L3wuR0E0jejdoiYxyozgGQrXUUlGNxRcHPmQx0WNFpCobxbRoFDN-3uv9NFLO9VxtEcjo9FvETuRM/s1600/Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="189" data-original-width="250" height="151" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhBqhQ2GfFH81CRP-EwjyCMybHfKDj_fDcirWcNJoT7LLk-RF4chBBSGG7TkwnmV87L3wuR0E0jejdoiYxyozgGQrXUUlGNxRcHPmQx0WNFpCobxbRoFDN-3uv9NFLO9VxtEcjo9FvETuRM/s200/Flea_infected_with_yersinia_pestis.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Infected rat flea (wiki)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="e24kjd">Fleas bite to drink blood from their
hosts and use two mouth parts. One part sucks blood from the host. The other
part squirts saliva in to prevent blood clotting and because of this second
part, fleas (like mosquitos) can readily transfer a range of diseases from one
host to another.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The new plasmid contained genes that allowed the Y.Pestis
to survive and replicate in the toxic environment of the foregut of the flea,
resist being ingested and form a biological film which blocks the flea’s
digestion. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Being unable to swallow the flea now regurgitates blood
into the bite site to clear its blocked digestive track and this is teaming
with bacteria. The bacteria no longer has to rely on saliva to transfer infection, it has
a far superior method.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Successful infection relies on a combination of the
virulence of the organism, the resistance of the host and the dose of
infection. A higher the dose of infection in the initial assault is more likely to overwhelm a new host’s initial resistance and establish a solid beach
head of infection.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Most (but not all) fleas have adapted to live, reproduce,
and preferentially feed on a narrow range of hosts. They don’t spend all their
time on the host, they (and their lava) live part of their life in nests and
surrounds. The tiny rat flea is one of the more selective ones, but, having
their digestive track blocked, they start to starve and they become voracious
feeders, not only biting nearby rodents repeatedly, but much more readily
biting dogs, cats, and humans. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Y. Pestis was already very lethal but now it truly became the
worst pestilence to ever be visited on mankind. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>What are the main rodents?</b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The main reservoir of the plague is wild rodents (e.g.
gerbils, marmots, prairie dogs, chipmunks, wood rats, ground squirrels, deer
mice and voles). It may be fatal in these animals but they usually have high
resistance. Cats, rabbits, some wild carnivores, goats, camels, and sheep can
also get the Plague.<span style="font-size: 13.5pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><br />
It usually gains entry to humans via
‘domestic’ rats which also roam in the wild and encounter the infection from
the ‘reservoir’ in the wild. A major player was the black rat (roof rat) and still is in some parts of the world. This
rat prefers to build their nests high and dry. Wood structures and thatched
roofs especially suited it. It likes temperate, not cold climates but the
larger, burrowing,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>brown rat (sewer rat,
Norwegian rat) was important in transmitting plague in colder climates.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The
Main Clinical Forms of the Plague</span></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Plague can loosely take three (main) clinical forms. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
They are all caused by the same organism<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>attacking at different sites of the body.</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibvjst-6pslvQkvr8MBGJnF6eNOXV7_fb4Dvk6iEOzgkq2xKV4-5NR2hZdzKuwfHBTRFfgigegbplcGcyvAlo5H6Cpt273umrXJR4IuMh50T9YKmKPNiZU1yKJtXxdEn34pH9ytsvav9WG/s1600/Plague_-buboes.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="564" data-original-width="800" height="140" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibvjst-6pslvQkvr8MBGJnF6eNOXV7_fb4Dvk6iEOzgkq2xKV4-5NR2hZdzKuwfHBTRFfgigegbplcGcyvAlo5H6Cpt273umrXJR4IuMh50T9YKmKPNiZU1yKJtXxdEn34pH9ytsvav9WG/s200/Plague_-buboes.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">(Image from Centres for Disease Control)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>Bubonic</b> form, is the major presentation, accounting
for 85 % and more of cases in most epidemics. It is most usually caused by the bite of
an infected flea though rarely it can be caught handling contaminated material
when there is an open wound on the skin. It <span class="s1">attacks the lymph
glands (</span>groin, armpit or neck<span class="s1"> ) which become very painful
and swollen by inflammation and necrotic tissue. It is accompanied with s</span>udden
onset of fever and chills, headache, fatigue or malaise and has <span class="s1">a
staggering mortality of 50%.</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>Septicaemic</b> form may also come from a flea bite which
avoids the lymphatic system, maybe causing a local abscess and reaching the blood
directly (no buboes). More commonly it is a complication of bubonic or
pneumonic plague. It occurs in 10% to 15% of cases with a mortality of a 100%
in untreated cases. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Death usually occurs at a terrifying speed (2-3 days after onset).
The plague toxins cause shock, multi organ failure and <span class="e24kjd">something called disseminated
intravascular coagulation (showing up as b</span>ruising, bleeding and gangrene
at the extremities).</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>Pneumonic</b> form is the rarest clinical type of
infection (less than 5 %) but can be far higher in some strains. It also has
100% mortality in untreated cases and death occurs in 2 to 6 days. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It can be a complication of septicaemic plague but mostly
it is passed directly from human to human. It is the only clinical form of
plague that can readily pass from human to human directly. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It takes close proximity with the victim (less than six
feet). While the bacteria can live in the soil for up to a year, it is
readily killed by sunlight and fresh air and can only last for less than an
hour in droplet form in the air. Patients are most infectious when they develop
a moist cough in the final stages.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Bubonic and Septicaemic plague are almost never
transferred directly from human to human.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
(Caution: <span class="MyparagraphChar"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">While I say the
bubonic form is </span></span><span class="MyparagraphChar"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">not highly
infectious beyond flea bites, all care needs to be taken in handling infected
patients and their body fluids. There are exceptions to every rule.)</span></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="MyparagraphChar"><b><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Climate
and the Plague</span></b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="MyparagraphChar"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Plague is a complex story of humans, rats, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>rat fleas and probably human fleas (see below).
Climate can impact incidence in contradictory ways. For instance, in medieval
temperate Europe, black rats and their fleas are less active in winter and
sometimes plague followed this pattern (not always). </span></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="MyparagraphChar"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">On the other hand, famine almost always preceded
a serious human pandemics (weakening human resistance)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>and famine could be triggered by a sudden burst of
cold weather and poor harvests. Climate changes may impact on the behaviour of
wild rodent populations and so on.</span></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Is there something missing in all this?</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Only about 30 of the approximately 3000 known species of
fleas are proven plague vectors and <i>Xenopsylla cheopis </i>(the Oriental rat
flea) is thought to be the most effective.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The rodent flea story is a compelling one and there is a
lot of evidence for it.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>How did Primitive Plague decimate the neolithic
farmers of Europe<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">? </span></b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
There is no doubt that the primitive forms of Y.Pestis was
highly virulent, but this occurred before<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Y.Pestis ‘learned’ to colonise and block the foregut of the rat flea.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
We have to postulate another way of entry into human
settlements and its ongoing propagation.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Hunters and gathers are at higher risk of being bitten by
hungry fleas of recently deceased rodents lying in wait in nests. This
would cause a bubonic infection. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
If a form of primitive <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Y.Pestis was more lethal to rats living in close proximity to humans in some wholesale way, this would result in a
lot of hungry rat fleas close to humans. Obvious
rat deaths (so called ‘rat falls’ of sick and dying rats from ceilings) is not
usually a feature of later plague outbreaks, but they have occurred. Such an event could cause an outbreak of bubonic plague even with the more primitive strain but it would only spread via rats, not from human to human. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
Another idea suggested was that maybe this early (primitive)
plague may have been mainly a pneumonic form. Ingestion of poorly cooked
infected meat gives rise to a ‘pharyngeal’ plague variant. It can mimic
tonsillitis and be transmitted to humans in droplet form, resulting in a
pneumonic outbreak in contacts of the initial case. Cats develop a similar form of plague and can
introduce a pneumonic form into a human settlement.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
While Pneumonic plague is uncommon in most epidemics, it is not true of all.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">1994 plague in </span><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Surat, </span>India had a large percentage of pneumonic cases and it
was initially misidentified as a more common respiratory illness. The </span>2017
outbreak in Madagascar was mainly pneumonic and the Black Death in Bergen,
Norway, in 1349, was initially pneumonic and only later changed to a mainly Bubonic type infection (presumably when Norwegian brown rats and their fleas became involved). </div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>What about later episodes?</b></span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
Could there be alternate forms of transmission of the bubonic form that we haven't previously suspected? <b><br /></b></div>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Rat fleas stick closer to their hosts than other fleas, and a healthy rat flea is unlikely to bite an infected human. In any case, it has been long taught that a healthy flea
of any species biting an infected human would be unlikely to get infected. This is because it is thought that there isn’t
enough concentration of bacteria in the blood of humans to overwhelm its
initial protective mechanisms.
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQLhvwFdgqAX51zGXvmCvyOJqUir2fGBZd9H16sEOPSHv4Xvh8phvW8uXNQFW2AmngCXV2EhLORUZ_LMNDziXvAmA_LcAlKio5qfk3RuO9gQakQu72Ecd_CtByHbClPn7VdlaaSQV6n3k2/s1600/20_The_Great_Plague.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1293" data-original-width="1600" height="258" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiQLhvwFdgqAX51zGXvmCvyOJqUir2fGBZd9H16sEOPSHv4Xvh8phvW8uXNQFW2AmngCXV2EhLORUZ_LMNDziXvAmA_LcAlKio5qfk3RuO9gQakQu72Ecd_CtByHbClPn7VdlaaSQV6n3k2/s320/20_The_Great_Plague.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rita Greer, The Great Plague</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Rodents can carry 500-1,000 times more plague bacteria per
unit of blood than humans who would be overwhelmed before reaching anything
like this.<br />
Humans with the septicaemic form of the plague have (by definition) a far
higher amount of bacteria in the blood than the bubonic form but is it enough?
Many experts would doubt it.<br />
This seems to mean that (apart from Pneumonic plague) humans do not spread plague and this would be astounding. It would mean that, in the worst epidemics in history humans are passengers, not active participants, they are mostly along for the ride in what is essentially a plague in rats.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Questioning the exclusive role of rats</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Some researchers have pointed to outbreaks of the garden
variety of Plague in situations where it is thought that the rat population was low.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
For rat centred spread of bubonic plague, Plague would have to be transferred to the local rat
population and then spread amongst it. After that, it takes the bacteria 12–16 days to
block the digestive tract of the flea and then the flea doesn’t live too long
after that. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
According to recent mathematical modelling, the spread during the Black Death period was too fast for this method of transmission in
several localities. The researchers suggested there must be another plague
vector and suspicion has fallen on <span class="st"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Pulex irritans </span></span>often
called the ‘human flea’ or ‘house flea’ which gets its name because of its irritating bite.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Pulex Irritans (the Human Flea)</b></span> has a wide distribution,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>can live on a very wide range of hosts: birds,
humans, dogs and cats, to name a few.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Whether 'human' fleas can even be a vector for plague has been hotly debated. These
fleas are not susceptible to having their foregut blocked. The ones in favour of
the human flea being a vector suggest that if a blocked foregut is not necessary, transfer of infection
can go faster. The few cases of North American plague is transmitted from
certain wild squirrels by a flea that doesn’t have its digestion blocked, and transmission
is indeed quicker. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
During a 2013 outbreak of plague in rural in Madagascar,
researchers caught rats in traps and also fleas in 'candle' traps in village
houses. 73% of the fleas were Pulex Irritans ‘human fleas’ and about 4 % of them
were carrying Y.Pestis. 2/3 of these had not recently fed suggesting the
fleas were infected and not just carrying infected blood in their latest meal. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
None of the rats were carrying human fleas, suggesting the
human fleas had most likely contracted the plague from humans. None of the
other flea species including the usual ‘vectors’ had plague DNA, but their
numbers were lowish. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Can Pulex Irritans transmit Plague from humans to humans?
This research needs to be confirmed, but our new suspect has been caught, not only leaving finger prints
at the crime scene but also holding the murder weapon. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Don’t think to throw away the rat theories. It is still a major pathway for transmission and for entry into the human population but maybe there is a
second pillar holding up the plague banner and waving it.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="st"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">For pet lovers </span></b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The ‘cat’ and dog fleas are thought to be poor vectors. Cats
and dogs might bring infected rat fleas indoors on their bodies where they
might bite humans.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Your favourite pet can get the plague by biting an infected rodent (and eating
it or being bitten by it) or they can be bitten by a rat flea. Cats are much
more susceptible to the plague and usually develop enlarged submandibular nodes
and sneezing, passing on the plague to their owners in the pneumonic form. Direct
transmission from dogs is rare but has occurred. Dogs are often asymptomatic.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1"><b><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Another reason why the plague is so lethal (in case we needed
another reason).</span></b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">A predator species doesn’t want to be too
efficient in eliminating its prey.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">Similarly, an infective agent wants
to infect and replicate (a lot) in its host but it wants to balance this need to replicate against the risk of an overwhelming infection killing the host. </span><br />
<span class="s1">Ideally it should form a reservoir in the host
population and maybe even have asymptomatic ‘carriers’. </span><br />
<span class="s1">This would require a less
lethal strain, forming a reserve, though from time to time more lethal strains would emerge.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">At the same time as the possible evolutionary pressure for the infection not to be super-virulent, hosts develop
resistance over time by the Darwinian selection. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">The same thing happened with the Plague but unfortunately this process mainly benefited rodents, especially wild rodents,
and not humans. Rodents are the main hosts.</span><br />
<span class="s1">It is speculative, but plague that is more virulent in humans might be more readily transmitted by human fleas. So selection may favour strains that are more deadly to humans. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="s1">Human resistance has been slow to develop and no reliable vaccine has yet been developed.</span><br />
<span class="s1">It remains endemic in Africa but in modern times it has become somewhat less of
a problem with better rat, flea control, better public health and
antibiotics. </span><br />
<br />
<span class="s1" style="font-size: small;"><b>Next month's Blog:</b> The Great Plague, major epidemics </span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span>
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<span class="s1"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"></span></i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-37785388790003583292019-09-06T00:54:00.001-07:002019-09-21T21:57:21.746-07:00Boudica (Boadicea) Britain AD 60<h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
</h1>
<div class="Myparagraph">
</div>
<div class="myparagraph0" style="text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Introduction: </b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Few people don’t know the story of Boudica.</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP-HGNMGtXJVycOUsArCgrLg6J040Hn0l-N6uUdWNRqhcaCPwQsKLOWu3jU7Zru1jLhdwkIpdtDsdbXp7x3oXMdvUomi1yxoeUbJjA9DiyHQRBpxlmJzWz9DXp7gyZEYlWdKHj86FnWcP_/s1600/Boudica_statue%252C_Westminster_%25288433726848%2529.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="444" data-original-width="512" height="276" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP-HGNMGtXJVycOUsArCgrLg6J040Hn0l-N6uUdWNRqhcaCPwQsKLOWu3jU7Zru1jLhdwkIpdtDsdbXp7x3oXMdvUomi1yxoeUbJjA9DiyHQRBpxlmJzWz9DXp7gyZEYlWdKHj86FnWcP_/s320/Boudica_statue%252C_Westminster_%25288433726848%2529.jpg" width="320" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Thornycroft 'Boadicea and her daughters'</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-size: large;">Her husband was
Prasutagus the long reining King of the Iceni, a tribe of Britons, and he died in
60 AD ‘at a great age’. He left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and to the
Roman Emperor (Nero). His will was ignored, a legion of Roman soldiers marched
into the territory. The family’s land, property, and wealth were confiscated,
buildings <span class="e24kjd">looted</span>
<span class="e24kjd">and members of the household
taken as slaves. A major part of the proceeds was going directly into the pocket of the
‘procurator’ (local head tax collector), </span>Catus Decianus. Catus also claimed g<span class="e24kjd">rants and gifts from </span>Emperor Claudius <span class="e24kjd">were
(unsolicited) loans and had to be repaid at ruinous levels of interest. He had
a Legion to back up his demands. The local Roman administration was plundering
their allies to make themselves wealthy.</span></span></div>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">When Boadicea protested, she was flogged and
her <span data-dobid="hdw">pubescent </span>daughters were gang raped. What happened next will live forever in history books and inspire men and women thirsting for justice (or maybe vengeance) from all over the world.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Some Background </b></span></div>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Did the Atlantic and the Channel isolate the British Isles?</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">In the modern world we are used to easy land transport. Britain had a few 'trackways' but oceans and waterways were the transport and communication highways. The first evidence
of cross channel trade dates to Mesolithic times <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/people-and-culture/food/the-plate/2015/03/03/ancient-wheat-uk/">(<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">see here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a>) . <span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"> </span></span>Nor was it a barrier to people movement. We don’t
know whether the arrival of the Neolithic Revolution 4000 BC involved large scale people
movement, but the arrival of the warlike Beaker People certainly did <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/feb/21/arrival-of-beaker-folk-changed-britain-forever-ancient-dna-study-shows">(<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">see here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a>) . <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">They were a maritime people (that later spread over land). They are thought to have originated from Portugal in the very late Neolithic period and by the time they reached Britain they brought copper and gold metallurgy </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">then bronze working soon after. It was they that did most of the stone work at Stonehenge. They spread out over the European Atlantic as far as Denmark and Sweden and reached as far as Italy, Sardinia and Sicily in the Mediterranean If the British Islands and the nearby continent didn't have a thriving maritime culture before, it certainly did now.</span></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>The Maritime Culture of the Atlantic</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Throughout the Bronze Age and onwards into Celtic times Southern England, Ireland, north-western France, and western Iberia were the major centres of a single culture with regular contact in the Mediterranean and as far as Scandinavia (<span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Bronze_Age"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">see here</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></span>). Various small vessels carried goods upstream to river ports some of which would not be commercially accessible today (note the coastline and rivers have changed somewhat since this time as well). A good example of such small boats is the then popular coracle which could be built with shallower drafts for small shallow rivers and deeper drafts for bigger waterways. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Celtic Britons in their turn traded with Phoenician, Carthaginian and Etruscan traders (and/or colonies) especially on the Southern European coast. Before the Romans, it was the dozen or so Greek colonies centred on Marseilles (from 500 BC) that was dominant in trade and sophisticated culture in the region.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The urban Britons developed a thirst for Italian
wines and Roman and Greek goods in exchange for Brittonic handicrafts, metal, hunting dogs etc. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">The Celts initially used Greek designs and
Greek script for their coins (500 BC onwards). The Britons and Celts in Gaul
(and Iberia) had land holdings and alliances on both
sides of the channel. Help from the Britons was one of the things Julius Caesar
complained about in his Gallic Wars. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">There were probably two economies in Celtic Britain and similar variations in culture. In the fertile lowlands, they built large fortified towns near trade and
transport and they became populous, <i>very</i> wealthy and militarily powerful, especially nearer the coast. In the mountains regions agriculture was more pastoral.
</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_ZKsx9y1HMT3ax1K5rFJFJ4lAuLBENxDAV_TlhPVz-Brcs9F-1GPZp-_GLUhJWMwt77kKGI6NRAeKoIIBOJ6nNy6ZnoVIzAR8pWLiQJSUF8z3gRW-Kszae_vsD469CynslsQhSiYLJj7z/s1600/800px-Trinovantes_2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="819" data-original-width="800" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_ZKsx9y1HMT3ax1K5rFJFJ4lAuLBENxDAV_TlhPVz-Brcs9F-1GPZp-_GLUhJWMwt77kKGI6NRAeKoIIBOJ6nNy6ZnoVIzAR8pWLiQJSUF8z3gRW-Kszae_vsD469CynslsQhSiYLJj7z/s200/800px-Trinovantes_2.jpg" width="195" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Pre-Roman coin with Roman script</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-size: large;">Towns near trading ports eagerly
incorporated culture from the continent. Some spoke Greek and Latin, some nobles had a Roman education, and their Kings sent ambassadors
to Rome. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Further away <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from these centres there were more hill forts
and druids (whose power was declining in part due to Roman distaste for them and persecution of them on the continent).</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">In the 98 years after Julius Caesar, Roman influence across
the channel only worked through trade, diplomacy and friendships and yet it was considerable. The local coins began having Roman themes and Roman script. Most of the nobles
were admirers of Roman culture (until the invasion). Strabo's Geography, written during
this period, suggested that Britain paid more in customs and duties than could
be raised by taxation if the island were ever conquered. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Rome and the Plunder Economy:</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">But the Roman Republic and the early Empire was in some ways a
‘plunder economy’.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Of course, there is more than one way to plunder a
conquered people than use soldiers to do it. The worst excesses of the Roman tax collectors (tax farming)
had been curtailed, but it was still perfectly acceptable for treasury
officials to put any surplus into their own pockets as long as Rome got her
share.</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHf3TlC4_XKP7EWveJ58UheQehms8yD3THsFSz9CwB_VCEx5Jm5Ys70bZEgiHFonaryZchOFFpg-9EWuPQ_EKrlamDWZaWlTVHQafcTe4Y6Jrw9AA1ZNREd96WkAs2L3NqJfT7ztUKbbAZ/s1600/Watling_Street_route.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="517" data-original-width="762" height="434" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgHf3TlC4_XKP7EWveJ58UheQehms8yD3THsFSz9CwB_VCEx5Jm5Ys70bZEgiHFonaryZchOFFpg-9EWuPQ_EKrlamDWZaWlTVHQafcTe4Y6Jrw9AA1ZNREd96WkAs2L3NqJfT7ztUKbbAZ/s640/Watling_Street_route.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">Watling St, Boudica traveled part of this before meeting her defeat (Wiki)</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-size: large;">It could cost a great deal (bribes, gifts etc) to be elected to
responsible positions. Julius Caesar launched his Gallic Wars not only to boost his
political standing but also to pay off his huge debts.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Rome
eventually launched their invasion in AD 43. It was aimed at the
Catuvellaunians, a tribe that had become the largest in the south east through conquest. The invasion was allegedly in response to their conquest of some
Roman allies. It was mainly the Catuvellaunians who initially opposed
the Romans. Many of the cultured Britons had pro-Roman sentiments at the time and initial resistance of some Britons was about their local issues.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Coloniae </b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">To bolster security, the Empire soon settled large numbers of veterans
in outposts called coloniae. They (like all Roman citizens as opposed to non Romans) were free of income
and capitation tax and were given rich farmland and housing (taken from the locals). </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">The first and largest coloniae in early Britannia (called in Brittonic 'Pretanī’) was Camulodunum (Colchester) which had been the foremost city in
Britain, connected to the coast by the river Colne.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">It had been the capital of the Trinovantes but at the time of the Roman invasion, the city had been occupied by the Catuvellaunians so found itself under <i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-style: normal;">Caratacus, </span></i>fighting the
Romans<i><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-style: normal;">. Its inhabitants ended up with a Roman occupation and were treated
very poorly</span></i><i>.</i></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Tacitus says "It was against the veterans that their
hatred was most intense. For these new settlers <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>… drove people out of their houses, ejected
them from their farms, called them captives and slaves ...."</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Client Kings and the first revolt of the Iceni </b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">For administrative
convenience, Romans often appointed a loyal local as king over a recently
defeated tribe. At their
death, the territory reverted to the Empire by which time the administrative structures were in place. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">The first revolt of the Iceni was in AD 47 when the then
Roman governor planned to disarm all the Britons after a number of local
uprisings. The Romans were already treating the Iceni as if they were a conquered
people.The treatment of the Iceni at Prasutagus’s death has caused speculation as to whether he
was a client King installed after the 47 revolt. Tacitus which is the best source we have clearly describes him
as 'long-reigning' which suggests he was not a client king, but an ally.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Who was Boudica?</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">*Boudīkā is a <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>feminine
adjective meaning "victorious". (Boudiga was also a Gaulish<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> name for the </span>war Goddess but the Iceni used the name Andraste for their war Goddess). As we only have
Roman accounts, there is some uncertainty about her background. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">It is agreed that she was of royal blood and grew up in Camulodunum (Colchester), making her a princess of the
Trinovantes or maybe the Catuvellaunians who had conquered them. She was
considerably younger than her husband, possibly born 30 AD and marrying him in
48 AD, making her 30 at his death. There is no mention of her husband being
married before so presumably their daughters , Isolda and Siora were very young.</span></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4PLmYl5it6o66O6ALvkPl4z8U_X1rBe7oMGSWhKLsfpm2UWyM3OKUnQ5bDojFtmUXYEjyhsYDr3zaspwoQvcsC8_eWb-vkASOYatqv2g1XWtIHsTSCTHCKs803FUxL_76tGuaw3RjGMz3/s1600/300px-Boudiccastatue.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="209" data-original-width="300" height="139" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4PLmYl5it6o66O6ALvkPl4z8U_X1rBe7oMGSWhKLsfpm2UWyM3OKUnQ5bDojFtmUXYEjyhsYDr3zaspwoQvcsC8_eWb-vkASOYatqv2g1XWtIHsTSCTHCKs803FUxL_76tGuaw3RjGMz3/s200/300px-Boudiccastatue.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;">She was cultured and educated like much of the Celtic female nobility of the time but that didn't mean she was soft. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Celtic Nobel women often served
as both warriors and rulers. Cassio
Dio, the Roman historian describes her.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“In stature she was very tall, in appearance most terrifying, in the
glance of her eye most fierce, and her voice was harsh; a great mass of the
tawniest hair fell to her hips; around her neck was a large golden necklace; and she wore a tunic of divers
colours over which a thick mantle was fastened with a brooch ".
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">There was no mention of woad or tattoos but she was certainly
not a lady to be messed with! </span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Retribution.</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilgZr33ZJ2xk1P6cEHQRPd0j81lVk5ea3yt10ICXBwgYE723ti9fywAFG7Lu3XG3Qmll_6hJVeZ5XSENfPWjdjaLmYi_T9UAwova9839zPKnTXVqRCygm6dqh1mCk1mkOxGME6SZjhyphenhyphenbVf/s1600/512px-Boadicea_Haranguing_the_Britons_%2528called_Boudicca%252C_or_Boadicea%2529_by_John_Opie.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="737" data-original-width="512" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilgZr33ZJ2xk1P6cEHQRPd0j81lVk5ea3yt10ICXBwgYE723ti9fywAFG7Lu3XG3Qmll_6hJVeZ5XSENfPWjdjaLmYi_T9UAwova9839zPKnTXVqRCygm6dqh1mCk1mkOxGME6SZjhyphenhyphenbVf/s200/512px-Boadicea_Haranguing_the_Britons_%2528called_Boudicca%252C_or_Boadicea%2529_by_John_Opie.jpg" width="138" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><i>John Opie 1761-1807</i></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-size: large;"><i>“We British are used to women commanders in war; I am
descended from mighty men! But I am not fighting for my kingdom and wealth now.
I am fighting as an ordinary person for my lost freedom, my bruised body, and
my outraged daughters.... Consider how many of you are fighting — and why! Then
you will win this battle, or perish. That is what I, a woman, plan to do!— let
the men live in slavery if they will.”<i>
</i>
Boudicca. </i></span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Boudicca took
command of the Iceni and the Trinovantes AD 60 marching on Camulodunum (Colchester),
now a Roman colonia and site of a
temple to the former Emperor Claudius<i>.</i> It is a little unclear what the garrison was but the XX legion had moved out in AD 55. Some of the early fortifications had been removed as the fortress was converted into a town and the town expanded over the earlier fortifications. The defenders held out for two days in the Roman temple.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The city was methodically
demolished leaving a thick red layer of burnt debris, destroyed buildings and
smashed pottery and glasswork. The rubble had to be landscaped to allow
rebuilding. Quintus Petillius Cerialis commanding the IX Legion attempted to relieve the city, but was ambushed, and suffered an overwhelming defeat. The
infantry with him were all killed – only the commander and some of his cavalry
escaped. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Other tribes rushed to join them and the new town of Londinium was next and
then Verulamim ( St Albans)
the previous town of the Catuvellaunians. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"> The Roman accounts suggest wholesale slaughter, torture and an orgy of ritual sacrifice especially aimed at noble women with an estimated 70,000 to 80,000 people killed. This is open to question on all sorts of levels, logistical, archeological and simple common sense. There was time to evacuate, even Camulodunum, Boudicca couldn't move quickly. It is more likely that most fled or joined the rebellion. In fact, town's folk rebelling was an additional reason given for the Romans being unable to defend Camulodunum. The archeological record, for what it is worth, doesn't support these sort of numbers. The two Roman accounts give differing versions of the torture.This is not to say that Celts did not collect the heads of enemies killed in battle nor that druids didn't engage in ritual executions, most often as punishment <a href="https://www.digitalmedievalist.com/opinionated-celtic-faqs/human-sacrifice/"><span style="color: black;">(</span><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">see here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a>) . The extent of atrocities that the Romans claimed was likely to be exaggerated (as was the size of her army). Would the Britons (led by a woman) really engage in mass torture of noble women in what had been her home town?</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Anyway, the news of the slaughter (with a likely degree of exaggeration) spread quickly across the Roman
empire. Nero was said to be considering abandoning Britannia.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces on Watling St, possibly in the West Midlands. Overwhelmingly outnumbered, he had chosen his battleground
carefully. He selected a narrow gorge with a forest behind him, opening
out into a wide plain. The gorge protected the Roman flanks from attack and funneled the enemy,
while the forest would impede approach from the rear. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">He decisively defeated the Britons, killing their women, children, and even pack animals.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Aftermath</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Catus Decianus fled
to Gaul. After an inquiry, the Governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was relieved of command.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Boudica poisoned herself to avoid capture.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">Hostile tribes, as well as those who had been neutral,
were harried and suffered punitive reprisals. The pre-Roman centre of the Iceni
is unknown but was presumably destroyed. A new town Venta Icenorum ('market
place of the Iceni') had to be built. There was a famine, as the Britons had
neglected to sow their crops for the season.</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="font-size: large;">The rebellion was over but to this day her steadfastness is a symbol of British resolve in the face of tyranny.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Wiki article <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudica"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Click Here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> </a></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-size: large; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Hope you enjoyed this blog, to see my novels, check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="font-size: large; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"> or at your favourite e-book store</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><b>Free Book 1:</b> 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span></span><span style="font-size: large; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;">(</span></span></span></a><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;">Click Here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;">)</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Subscribe to my blog <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a> </span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRqB7s9nCAq7ZM-ETfUt86XJdjwp81jJjxjvDhjOeYjYIrJytlf5v5-EvKi2IjQgEfMsm7zbyEIYSbxp7sPW4-oXgu9pd09d6tSaovB_jBuIlP4ojkUi190r5HKH35rdSpf6JcMCDEEnO-/s1600/1911Watling_Street.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1043" data-original-width="1600" height="417" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRqB7s9nCAq7ZM-ETfUt86XJdjwp81jJjxjvDhjOeYjYIrJytlf5v5-EvKi2IjQgEfMsm7zbyEIYSbxp7sPW4-oXgu9pd09d6tSaovB_jBuIlP4ojkUi190r5HKH35rdSpf6JcMCDEEnO-/s640/1911Watling_Street.png" width="640" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;">larger map Watling st</span></td></tr>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="List Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="List Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="List Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="List Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="List Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="List Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="List Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="List Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="List Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Mention"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Smart Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hashtag"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Unresolved Mention"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<br />
<div align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">home page</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span> </div>
This the second and last article on Armenia.<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Introduction </span></b></div>
<b> </b><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">It
was the first modern genocide, </span><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">1.5 million men, women and children. It may have
inspired the Nazi holocaust. </span><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.meforum.org/3434/armenian-genocide-hitler"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">see here</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></span> <span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;">What are some of the factors leading the Ottomans
to try to exterminate their Armenian population in WW1 ?</span> <br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">The Ottoman Empire, the Golden Age through to 1566</span></b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ottoman Empire
(<span class="nowrap">1299–1922) </span>began from a small corner of what had
once been the Seljuk (‘Turco-Persian’) Empire and prospered under a line of
committed and effective Sultans, flourishing economically due to its control of
the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia. It quickly rebuilt
Constantinople after the terrible devastation wrought by fire, Crusaders and the Plague and expanded into Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Balkans and the Caucasus, sending trade ships as far as Indonesia. It became an important ally to France against the
Hapsburgs and its navy opposed Portuguese colonisation in multiple theatres. <br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8YAIrAxIRqS3G0jENYlsUI_0Dd-qmiQ4rujLMHGLjG2OF7GOPTMzP9W5XkLRp1gTpsxotTlc-uOWLtFL9GklFt2W3SsDhhlqshbiMGFj_LG7oLMVZ6sdF5zXRhTDu0FDQFBKaIJdvcK8g/s1600/OttomanEmpireMain.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="574" data-original-width="800" height="229" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8YAIrAxIRqS3G0jENYlsUI_0Dd-qmiQ4rujLMHGLjG2OF7GOPTMzP9W5XkLRp1gTpsxotTlc-uOWLtFL9GklFt2W3SsDhhlqshbiMGFj_LG7oLMVZ6sdF5zXRhTDu0FDQFBKaIJdvcK8g/s320/OttomanEmpireMain.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" lang="en">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">The Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent, </span></span><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-weight: normal;">Chamboz, Wiki</span></span></h1>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Until the second half of the 15th century the Empire had a
Christian majority, under the rule of a Muslim minority. It was relatively tolerant of Christians and Jews (though these other
religions were seen as second to Islam). Under the <i><span lang="TR" style="mso-ansi-language: TR;">millet</span></i> system, non-Muslim people governed
themselves locally, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural
and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. The Imperial
government protected them, and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic
groups. The attitude was clear, the welfare and success of its citizens
gave strength and prosperity to the Empire as a whole. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
For a long time, the Ottoman Empire was progressive in
art, science, manufacture and military.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Christians and Jews were in some ways disadvantaged, but in other ways
had distinct advantages. More of them were educated, they had more schools, and
their education was not primarily religious nor burdened by having to learn
Arabic and Arabic script. They were allowed printing which was long forbidden
by the Muslim religious elite (in case it would cause disrespect to the Koran)
and they could charge interest which further assisted their commercial
advancement. In 1911 (for instance) of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul,
528 were owned by ethnic Greeks. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Controversially, there was conscription of promising Christian boys from
Anatolia and the Balkans (‘Devshirme’, mid 1300- mid 1600) who were Islamised
and then trained in the service of the Palace, the Scribes, the Religious and
the Military. It was
designed to give the Sultan an intensely loyal civil service and military force (the ‘Janissaries’) beyond the nobility. While this was often resented and called a ‘blood tax’, some parents
(even Muslims) were known to bribe the scouts to take their children. It established a ruling class of the
best and brightest, with a lot of privileges and advantages, including advancement even
up to the level of the Grand Vizier. This important ruling class, while now Muslim, usually remained sympathetic to their family origins. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The end of the Golden Age is normally dated to the death
of Suleiman the Magnificent (1566) but the decline at first was very slow with
long periods of relative peace and numerous attempts at reform. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<b><span style="font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-size: large;">Religious
Intolerance in Europe</span>. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The (relative) religious tolerance of the early Ottoman
Empire towards Christians and Jews can be contrasted to a millennia of
religious intolerance and persecution in Europe. Antisemitism was endemic and periodically boiling over into massacres and expulsions (especially at the time of the
Crusades). </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Crusades (1096-) gave moral primacy to the Pope, and
combined a romantic vision of Christianity, Chivalry and Militarism. Not that
they were always so glorious in practice.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
‘Crusades’ began to be instigated against Christians who thought differently to the Catholic Church (‘heretics’) starting with the Cathars in France (1208)
and soon extended to anyone who gave them shelter. It continued on to other dissenting Christian groups,
causing a reign of terror lasting on and off for centuries rising to a crescendo with the religious wars between Catholics and Protestants (16<sup>th</sup>-early
18<sup>th</sup> c). </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The use of inquisitions with torture to extract
confessions (and hanging and burning as punishments) was first ordered by the
Pope for France in 1184. Inquisitors were given automatic 'absolution' for their
own actions and inquisitions became incredibly popular right through till the 1800 ’s
eventually extending to witchcraft trails. It soon became possible to accuse
ones enemies without proof. Much of the ‘religious’ fervour had an undertone
of power, money, desire to grab property and secret political agendas (eg action against the knights Templar as a way of seizing a fortune in gold <span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Templar"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></span>).</div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="line-height: 200%;">The
Final Days of the Ottoman Empire.</span></b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The situation in the final days of the Ottoman Empire was
very different to that of its Golden Age. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It was falling behind in industry and trade. Local authorities
were often corrupt. Muslim lords took as much as half of each peasant's crop
annually. Tax collectors ‘bid’ for how much tax they would be able to raise. The winners got
to keep anything left over for their personal use and were poorly supervised,
resulting in routine abuse. A Christian’s testimony had never been accepted in a
Muslim court, making it hard to gain redress and, as public opinion turned
against Christians, they often bore the brunt of additional taxes and other
abuses. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The nineteenth century was a complete nightmare for the Empire.
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Numerous territories gained de facto and then real independence
including Serbia 1804 and the Greece 1830. France occupied Algeria 1830. Egypt became
an English protectorate.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Czarist Russia began pressing them in the Balkans, Crimea
and eventually the Caucasus. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
They defaulted (1875) on a debt of £200,000,000, with annual
interest and amortization payments of £12,000,000, more than half the national
revenue. A foreign ‘Ottoman Public Debt Administration’ was established with parallel
power to collect taxes, approve investors in the Empire and exempt them from
tax and local laws. It had a bigger bureaucracy than their own treasury. Most of the Empire’s railroads became foreign owned. The debt
meant more taxes, on the non Muslim subjects of the Empire, and less services. The European Banks were bleeding a bankrupt Empire dry.<br />
The Empire already hardly had the resources to defend itself and each time the Europeans rescued ‘the sick man of Europe’ they got more control over the Empire and influence inside its borders.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
As Christians began pushing the Muslim Empires back they began expelling Muslims (and Jews) who
refused to convert, all this with enthusiastic support and even pressure to do so from the Catholic Church. This started on the Iberian peninsula in the mid 1500 ‘s after
the defeat of the Moors and continued like clockwork as the Ottoman Empire
began losing territories.<br />
For persecution of Muslims during Ottoman contraction <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims_during_Ottoman_contraction" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">see here</span></a> </span>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
By the end of 1699 virtually all Muslims (130,000) in
Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia were exiled, murdered, enslaved or forced to
convert. This continued when Austria took some Ottoman land in the 1700 ‘s and
was repeated in the 1800 ‘s in Serbia and Greece<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(15,000 Muslims were killed and the rest expelled around 1821).
During the Crimean war (1853–1856) against Russia 200,000 Crimean Tartars were forced to flee to
the Ottoman Empire. The Russian conquest of the North Caucasus (1864) was
followed by 'ethnic cleansing' of 90% of the Circassians (one of the important mountain tribes) <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circassian_genocide" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">see here</span></a></span> .<br />
Along
with Muslims, Jews also fled seeing the Ottomans as their protectors. The refugees were welcomed into the remaining Ottoman lands but the influx of Muslims into the shrinking Empire <br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtxOXskrHt7o7y-FtNeBtHyApfEf3ZuRgDJA_xXLDbttzSEhvQxNjEB6Jf0I0L-GFbTwXLHhSv2VGIMQ77SAp-R776ArN5VQyhqV2k8ee4diMx7_fPuK4q4pc2PJunmh2asllaYOT8ZOMp/s1600/800px-Pyotr_Nikolayevich_Gruzinsky_-_The_mountaineers_leave_the_aul.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="591" data-original-width="800" height="236" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtxOXskrHt7o7y-FtNeBtHyApfEf3ZuRgDJA_xXLDbttzSEhvQxNjEB6Jf0I0L-GFbTwXLHhSv2VGIMQ77SAp-R776ArN5VQyhqV2k8ee4diMx7_fPuK4q4pc2PJunmh2asllaYOT8ZOMp/s320/800px-Pyotr_Nikolayevich_Gruzinsky_-_The_mountaineers_leave_the_aul.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gruzinsky The mountaineers leave the aul (village) 1872</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
had
several consequences.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
1. With the Tatars and the Circassians, the usual Turkish
generosity and the Empire’s pre-eminent status in the Muslim world far exceeded their ability
to absorb them. The local administration was corrupt and often took
advantage and the refugees were not given supplies. Local charities were quickly overwhelmed
and the refugees sometimes died faster than they could be buried. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
2. The Empire displaced their own citizens such as
Christians and Kurds to make room for them. The influx was often deliberately sent
to areas of unrest, as a loyal counterweight, but this only increased the
growing unrest, especially places like in Bulgaria. Some locals refused to give
up their homes, resulting in armed conflict. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
3. The refugees brought disease, and the Circassians also began
raiding their wealthier neighbours.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
4. The demographics were already changing by this time
and this accelerated the process. When the Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of
Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russian expansion alone. The Crimean
Tartars played a notable role not only in modernizing education but also
promoting Pan-Turkism. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
5. There was a hardening of attitude towards Christians
(and Christian rebels) born of anger and frustration and the suffering of Muslim refugees at the time of their expulsion. In suppressing the Balkan uprising of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1875,
the Ottoman troops performed many atrocities. The most famous was in Bulgaria
where 30,000 were massacred and it may have been far more. Many of the
perpetrators were later decorated by the Ottoman high command. This caused an
outrage in the West causing a reversal of Britain’s pro-Ottoman policy. It led
to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, where the Ottomans faced the Russians
alone, along with a number of Christian revolts, and they did disastrously. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Some Europeans were more aware of Muslim (and maybe Russian)
atrocities than the massacres and expulsions of Muslims by Christians, even though it was on
a greater scale. Mark <span class="reference-text">Levene ( in his 2005 book) </span>suggests
that ‘ethnic cleansing’ in the Balkans was seen in some circles as 'necessary to nation building'. After the Ottomans lost in Bulgaria (as an example) within a
very short time half the 1.5 million Muslim population of Bulgaria was gone, an
estimated 200,000 had died or were murdered, the rest fled. The migration continued
in the peacetime, some 350,000 Bulgarian Muslims left the country between 1880
and 1911. In the same war, Serbians were said to carry out ‘ethnic cleansing’
of Muslims, many of whom fled to Kosovo.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Armenian Attitudes at the Ottoman Empire</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Armenians had remained, by and large passive to the
turmoil in the Balkans. Earning them the title of <i>millet-i sadika</i> or the
"loyal millet". <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
During the Russo-Persian war 1826-1828 , Tsar Nicholas 1
sought help from Persian Armenians and promised to help improve their lives. Russia
conquered all the Persian territory in the Caucasus, including Eastern Armenia
which had a Muslim majority at the time. Armenians began to return and Muslims
left (I don’t know under what circumstances).</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Meanwhile, the treatment of the Ottoman Armenians had
become appalling. The demands of the average Armenian was at first moderate,
complaining about the usurpation of land, "the looting and murder in Armenian
towns by Kurds and Circassians, improprieties during tax collection, criminal
behaviour by government officials and the refusal to accept Christians as
witnesses in trial.” </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It was described as ‘the Armenian question’ (the guarantee
of protection and freedoms from their neighbouring communities). </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Ottoman Armenians began to see the Russians as
saviours, as the central Ottoman government faltered in their responsibilities to protect the Armenians, and
attitudes towards Armenians hardened. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78 (mentioned above) while
most of the focus was on the Balkans, Russia occupied a large part of Turkish
Armenian and refused to withdraw until there was
better treatment of the Armenians. The four Russian Generals in the Caucasus were all Armenian.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The other Great Powers (especially Britain) forced Russia to withdraw without the reforms
and while they were agreed to they were <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>never implemented. Sultan Abdul Hamid II, a Pan-Islamist,
responded (1890–91) with anger at the Armenians, arming the Kurds and giving
them legal protection and powers to deal with the rural Armenians ‘as they saw fit’, sometimes
with the assistance of the Ottoman army. He could not afford to lose Armenia in the heart of Anatolia and his solution was to supress the Armenians. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
It also<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>became easy
to drum up mobs in cities and towns against Armenians and other Christians
saying ‘the Armenians were destroying Islam’. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The effect was brutal, and lead up to the ‘Hamidian
Massacres’ of 1894–1896 which had estimated casualties ranged from 80,000 to 300,000,
mostly <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>Armenians.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Armenian Resistance</b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Several Armenian resistance organisations became organised
from outside Turkey. The largest the Dashnaktsutyun (Dashnak or ‘Armenian
Revolutionary Federation’, ARF in 1890), another was Hunchakian party (1887). Their
aims were the autonomy for the Armenian-populated areas in the Ottoman Empire.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
They also helped set up Fedayi (militia) to defend Armenians against
Ottoman and Kurdish attacks. The local resistance was usually outmatched in men and equipment.
They sabotaged telegraph lines, raided army supplies, tried to assassinate the
Sultan, occupied the Ottoman Bank, carried out a reprisal raid on a Kurdish
tribe where they spared women and children and later assassinated some of the perpetrators of the genocide <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Nemesis"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">see here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>.</a> </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
At first the ARF had support of the
Czar, but this broke down for a while in June 12, 1903, when he decided to
bring Armenian Church property under his personal control. <br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>The Young Turks, WW 1 and the Genocide</b></span></div>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In 1905 there was a army coup of ‘the Young Turks’ against
the increasingly unstable Sultan Hamid (1908 ). He was deposed, and a
constitutional parliament established for a while, with Armenian support . Unfortunately
Mehmed Talaat (Talaat Pasha) became minister of interior affairs and he had
already stated “If I ever come to power in this country, I will use all my
might to exterminate the Armenians.” He was accompanied by coup leader Enver
Bey (later Pasha), soon to be Minister of War, and Ahmed Djemal Pasha.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
On November 2, 1914, the Empire, in collapse, was pushed by Enver into World War 1 on the
side of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria. It was a desperate gamble, but
if their side won it would be a massive windfall. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
At the Caucasus front, the Ottomans had well over 100,000 and
the Russians had 60,000 men. The Russians also had <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span> 20,000 well equipped and seasoned Armenian
volunteers in a special unit which later grew in size, eventually claiming 150,000
in four divisions under Armenian Generals (after the Russian withdrawal). They
were nominally from Eastern Armenia and Armenian Russian volunteers with more from the Armenian diaspora. The local militias were reactivated (behind
Ottoman lines).</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
On 24 December 1914, <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Enver
Pasha ordered his 111rd army to destroy the Russian Caucasus Army (ultimately gaining access to Azerbaijan's oil). It was a mad plan in the heart of winter with inexperienced, ill equipped troops over poor roads and with precise but unattainable schedules marching up to 14 hrs in the snow , some troops with only bread and no winter uniforms. <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sarikamish"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;">see here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span> When his local commander told him this, Enver took charge himself , leading the army to a stunning defeat where they were almost completely destroyed. 25,000 men died before even reaching the enemy.<br />
Enver had been criminally negligent but he publicly blamed his defeat on
the Armenians who played a very small part. In November 1914 the Shaykh ul-Islam (Grand
Mufti of the Ottomans) <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>proclaimed Jihad (Holy War)
against the Christians.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Enver and Talaat Pasha launched a genocide (1915 -1916 mainly) against the Armenians (killing 1.5 million) but also against the
Greeks (450,000–750,000) and Assyrian Christians (150,000–300,000). </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The first step was the arrest (and murder) of Armenian
intellectuals and leaders. The Armenian conscripts were disarmed and put into
‘work battalions’ and eventually executed, depriving Armenian communities of
able bodied men.<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVUdlifruXTUKlek31BQ3C-d1lFCbJLoJQS4fzEjacu_q8o6kDjv0KgKE3i_xk6aOKRlay_rpyXOy2lsH5njlU0LwLie57UtP9pS4eXS5f9V293yVh79SWk47OtFdO_NMk9qH54Q5oqhkd/s1600/800px-Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="501" data-original-width="800" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgVUdlifruXTUKlek31BQ3C-d1lFCbJLoJQS4fzEjacu_q8o6kDjv0KgKE3i_xk6aOKRlay_rpyXOy2lsH5njlU0LwLie57UtP9pS4eXS5f9V293yVh79SWk47OtFdO_NMk9qH54Q5oqhkd/s320/800px-Armenian_woman_kneeling_beside_dead_child_in_field.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Armenian Woman beside a dead child within sight of Aleppo <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2006679122"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span> </td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Men, women, and children were sent on death marches and
taken to concentration camps in the desert while being deprived of food and water.
Women were raped, some were married or sold as sex slaves. Some were burnt
alive in barns, children were loaded into boats and taken out to sea and thrown
overboard. A few were killed with poison gas, morphine injections and
inoculation with live Typhoid. Their property was declared abandoned and was
confiscated, going a long way to help Turkey with the debts it inherited. 2,000
churches and 200 monasteries were destroyed. The Armenians in Turkey dropped from
more than 2 million in 1914 to 50,000 to 70,000 in 2005.</div><div class="Myparagraph"><b>German involvement? </b></div><div class="Myparagraph">The Ottomans had a number of German advisers, observers and even senior commanders. </div><div class="Myparagraph">Kaiser Wilhelm was known for his racist views and may have sponsored the 1900 Herero and Namaqua genocide in Nambia. Rudolf Höss was present and he later became the director at Auschwitz.</div><div class="Myparagraph">Most of the Germans distanced themselves from what happened and some were 'whistle blowers'.</div><div class="Myparagraph">Friedrich Bronsart von Schellendorf, the most senior German and the chief of staff of the Ottoman army, was involved in the Ottoman war plans and the deportations. He later became an apologist, an Armenian Genocide denier and an ardent Nazi. In 1919, he specifically likened the Armenians to Jews, calling them both 'parasites'. It is not known how much he knew, whether he was complicit or even a major instigator. </div><div class="Myparagraph">For Armenian Genocide, Wiki <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_Genocide"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">see here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="line-height: 200%;">Russian, Armenian and Greek Atrocities</span></b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
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<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
When Greece occupied part of Turkey 1919–1922 <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
there were a number of atrocities, especially when the Greeks were
being driven back, employing a scorched earth policy. Later, in 1923, there was a negotiated population exchange of
ethnicities between Greece and Turkey.</span><br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">The respected h</span>istorian Uğur Ümit Üngör of the Dutch Institute for War, Holocaust,
and Genocide Studies claims "many atrocities were carried out against the local
Turks and Kurds by the Russian army and Armenian volunteers". His data was not available to me. Turkey built the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Iğdır
Genocide Memorial to commemorate the Massacres of Turks by
Armenians. (Iğdır had been<b> </b>part of Persian (East) Armenia).<br />
I was not able to confirm these particular atrocities myself, the only leads I had had to be dismissed on a just little investigation. Bear in mind that in WW 1, like the Crimean War before it, 2-3 times the number of Turkish soldiers died of disease and poor conditions than were killed in combat. This was massively complicated by the Spanish Flu Pandemic (1918) which killed a staggering 50-100 million worldwide. Now add famine to imagine the toll on civilians fleeing the front lines.<br />
The impact would be overwhelming and chaotic. We don't need widespread atrocities to explain the majority of civilian deaths. <br />
Absence of evidence (in English and on the 'Net') is
not evidence of absence.<br />
Individual instances undoubtedly occurred but without more information, I could not confirm the idea of a widespread or systematic targeting of Turkish (and Kurdish) civilians inside Turkish borders by Armenian troops. Counter claims of Armenians conducting Genocides involving millions of Muslims is generally regarded as preposterous. </div>
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b><span style="line-height: 200%;">Turkish
Attitude</span></b></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The genocide is officially denied in Turkey. Reportedly, the school curriculum
depicts Armenians and Greeks as enemies and traitors. There is very
strong negative feelings about Armenians, especially by Ultra-nationalists.<br />
Turkish and Kurdish views were not and are still are not monolithic. Many at the time protested then and soon after, some refused orders and risked their lives to save Armenians. When Hrant Dink faced criminal charges for 'insulting Turkishness' and was then murdered for writing about the Holocaust (19 January 2007) a hundred thousand citizens marched in protest in Istanbul <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Hrant_Dink"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">see here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span> .<br />
<br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Hope you enjoyed this blog, to see my novels, check out my Amazon Authors page </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://www.amazon.com/Neil-Port/e/B00A7NTWW2"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span> or at your favourite e-book store<br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><b>Free Book 1:</b> 'The Elvish Prophecy' </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;">(</span></span></span></a><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif;"><span style="line-height: 27px;"><a href="https://books2read.com/u/m2Xdy7"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">Click Here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></span>)<br />
<br />
Subscribe to my blog <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><a href="http://eepurl.com/bcFc6n" target="_blank"><span style="color: cyan;">here</span></a> </span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">home page </span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></div>
</div>
<br /></div>
The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-88658139654506587822019-07-07T21:57:00.022-07:002021-06-13T15:19:52.427-07:00Historical Armenia, a very brief introduction<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
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<br />
<h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span class="js-intro-narrative">Armenia</span></h1>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIKpnhji5Xm_yfI6WYA22cLrR8KAjua7x6jP7REdpzJanJrSfRhGqMrB7BMw8dDXCsJywSnErzwyszdU5D7Qj7COWHZAklTdlcaF2hRr7F14kqULkqiObZznmUuFvLqKLDmmTmrv1PSx8S/s1600/Am-map2.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="354" data-original-width="330" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIKpnhji5Xm_yfI6WYA22cLrR8KAjua7x6jP7REdpzJanJrSfRhGqMrB7BMw8dDXCsJywSnErzwyszdU5D7Qj7COWHZAklTdlcaF2hRr7F14kqULkqiObZznmUuFvLqKLDmmTmrv1PSx8S/s200/Am-map2.png" width="186" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Armenia, CIA World Factbook</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span class="js-intro-narrative">Few nations have histories
as ancient, complex and laced with tragedy as Armenia. Modern Armenia is a small
land-locked mountainous democratic republic in the Lesser Caucasus, a land of breath taking
scenery and old</span> churches and monasteries.<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjn1neJ1gspgRaTEqgKUek1eKG9X41z7_agEf8erevGXsQ8sfyCW9Nn0b8d5mx_fK7b8ADeY-0d8eeQT7yrvLp3QHUu9MGjv87abGCHVMhBWqJr9dIr-GcU_4cP_eLrFTKk2JxCMo6vaaYr/s1600/285px-Armenia_Haghbat.jpg" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="210" data-original-width="285" height="147" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjn1neJ1gspgRaTEqgKUek1eKG9X41z7_agEf8erevGXsQ8sfyCW9Nn0b8d5mx_fK7b8ADeY-0d8eeQT7yrvLp3QHUu9MGjv87abGCHVMhBWqJr9dIr-GcU_4cP_eLrFTKk2JxCMo6vaaYr/s200/285px-Armenia_Haghbat.jpg" width="200" /></a><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="js-intro-narrative"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately it a poor country and w</span><span class="js-intro-narrative"><span class="js-intro-narrative">hile the
volcanic </span>soil is rich, there are few lowlands and lots of surface stones
making farming difficult in many places. Furthermore, the Caucasus Mountains shelters it from rain</span>. It has to import most of its resources and has a
negative trade balance. Many of the roads are very rough. </div><div class="Myparagraph"><br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Post Soviet Economic Collapse</b></div><div class="Myparagraph">The economy collapsed shortly after independence (21 September 1991) as it
struggled to emerge in the Post Soviet Era. This wasn’t helped by a massive
earthquake in 1988 and the conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh which led Azerbaijan
to impose a blockade (closing a vital natural
gas pipeline to Armenia). It forced Armenia to re-open its (dated) Soviet Era nuclear power plant in a country prone to earthquakes. </div><div class="Myparagraph">Turkey also closed the border in support of Azerbaijan, meaning Armenia
became a landlocked country with no diplomatic relations with two out of its four
neighbours, relying on Iran and Georgia for trade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Georgia had declared independence in the same year but was going through a bitter civil war until nearly 1995, adding to Armenia’s
economic difficulties.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Armenian Diaspora </b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The population of Armenia is three million and, by some
estimates, up to eight million Armenians live overseas, with 1.5 million in the
former Soviet Union and about 1 million in the United States.</div><div class="Myparagraph"><br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center; text-indent: 0in;"><b>Some of Armenia’s claims to fame</b>:</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsufm_a45rb4qKg1FJc5AzjrmTguPHghyphenhypheniZUns30E1eRogPjR4T8Y30mtoXGL45YOfyjCy8isP1MYEQfzFzwD5xF_sAKpGMAT3z0t1XgXJZdKvURAq045RJZlBu5yuDJ6Lif2z0JAO4SX4/s1600/256px-Mount_Ararat_and_the_Yerevan_skyline.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="171" data-original-width="256" height="133" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsufm_a45rb4qKg1FJc5AzjrmTguPHghyphenhypheniZUns30E1eRogPjR4T8Y30mtoXGL45YOfyjCy8isP1MYEQfzFzwD5xF_sAKpGMAT3z0t1XgXJZdKvURAq045RJZlBu5yuDJ6Lif2z0JAO4SX4/s200/256px-Mount_Ararat_and_the_Yerevan_skyline.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Capital Yerevan (Serouj Ourishian, Wiki)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="Myparagraph">
1. <b>Mount Ararat</b>, accepted by most to be the one referred
to in the Bible. In their founding myth, mighty Hayk, a great, great, grandson
of Noah returned to the mountain to establish his people but was pursued by a
giant and the giant's army, both of which he vanquished.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
2. <b>Two of Jesus apostles</b>, Thaddaeus
and Bartholomew<span class="MsoHyperlink">, were
said to have </span>preached Christianity to the Armenians beginning after 40
AD. They established the Armenian Apostolic Church<span class="MsoHyperlink">, making it </span>amongst the oldest Christian churches in the world. </div><div class="Myparagraph">The Armenian Church rejected the Council of Chalcedon's view on the 'Trinity' (rather believing Jesus had one nature) so the Armenian Church is separate to the Catholic and Eastern
Orthodox churches. </div><div class="Myparagraph">It is part of the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Oriental Orthodox communion.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
3. <b>Saint Gregory the Illuminator,</b> the first patriarch of
the church, was martyred in a pit for refusing an order by the King Tiridates
III to lay a wreath at the foot of a statue of the Goddess Anahit during important celebrations . After
surviving in the pit for 14 years and miraculously curing the King he was
allowed to convert the rest of Armenia to Christianity in 301, making Armenia the first nation to adopt Christianity
as a state religion.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
4. The invention of the <b>Armenian Alphabet</b> in alphabet in
405 AD was a major landmark in Armenian culture. Previously Greek and Farsi
(Persian) were used as the written languages.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
5. A journey into darkness, the <b>Armenian Genocide</b> from the start of WW 1 to the defeat of the Ottomans and establishment of the Turkish Republic (1920). </div>
<h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
A very brief outline of Armenian
History</h1>
<div class="Myparagraph">
In the <b>Neolithic and early Bronze Ages</b>, Armenia was part of
the Neolithic and Bronze Age ‘Early Transcaucasian Cultures’ that extended well
beyond the southern Caucus: the Shulaveri-Shomu
culture 6000 BC — 4000 BC and then the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kura–Araxes
culture<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: small; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>4000 BC - 2000 BC. </div><div class="Myparagraph">This makes the Caucasus region one of <span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span style="font-size: small;">the oldest
civilised regions in the world. The success, the rapid and relatively wide spread of the Kura-Araxes
culture is a puzzle to archaeologists, some of whom refer to it as the
Kura-Araxes </span></span>‘phenomenon'.</div><div class="Myparagraph"><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLy2DYWq8zDky-PhWhyphenhyphen99hyIKr-raHKpnzPYgBaltTEnwcW9K3GombT0W2a8M12R_aKVQXgSnDxLbEEQvxcmS-Il8b9ylRkaOaUOtLuu56ah89vOS_7uwjypZnwshsDP4fPTc5JsCPk-pe/s1600/Distribution-map-of-extent-of-the-Kura-Araxes-cultural-tradition.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="685" data-original-width="850" height="160" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLy2DYWq8zDky-PhWhyphenhyphen99hyIKr-raHKpnzPYgBaltTEnwcW9K3GombT0W2a8M12R_aKVQXgSnDxLbEEQvxcmS-Il8b9ylRkaOaUOtLuu56ah89vOS_7uwjypZnwshsDP4fPTc5JsCPk-pe/s200/Distribution-map-of-extent-of-the-Kura-Araxes-cultural-tradition.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><h1 class="nova-e-text nova-e-text--size-m nova-e-text--family-sans-serif nova-e-text--spacing-none nova-e-text--color-inherit" itemprop="caption">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Extent of the Kura Araxes cultural tradition, </span><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span></span></h1>
<h1 class="nova-e-text nova-e-text--size-m nova-e-text--family-sans-serif nova-e-text--spacing-none nova-e-text--color-inherit" itemprop="caption">
<span style="color: cyan;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Mitchell </span></span><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">Rothman<a class="nova-e-link nova-e-link--color-inherit nova-e-link--theme-decorated" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mitchell_Rothman2" rel="noopener"></a></span></span><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a class="nova-e-link nova-e-link--color-inherit nova-e-link--theme-decorated" href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mitchell_Rothman2" rel="noopener"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: small; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"> <span style="font-size: x-small;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></h1>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
There is a gap in our understanding of what was happening
in Armenia throughout the rest of the Bronze Age. There are a few possible
references from the Akkadians, Hittites and Assyrians but these are imprecise
and based on vague geography and etymology (similar sounding names) .</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Just before the Bronze Age collapse of 1200 to 1150 BC, the
Assyrians mention conquering the ‘Nairi tribes’ (of Armenia).</div><div class="Myparagraph"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The first Armenian Kingdom </b><b>(Iron Age)</b></div><div class="Myparagraph">In <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>860–843 BC King Aramu united the Armenian tribes against Assyrian incursions, forming the Kingdom of Van (or 'Urartu' after the original name of Mount Ararat). </div><div class="Myparagraph">The new Armenian Kingdom (9th–6th
centuries BC) spoke ‘Urartu’, a non-Indo-European language which is now extinct. The Kingdom briefly became powerful until declining due to repeated Cimmerian and
Assyrian raids, finally turning to Assyria for protection and being absorbed, and then destroyed by the Persians (590 BC) after the Persians conquered the Kingdom's Assyrian overlords (612 BC).</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfeUOvxlfDU0ZXeNpaRxNbFpfSwF627mFNDmFBWbrRIxumFu7abDksnsMMyvy1XeUFptMxIuAelor0a9V8LocDgt8UFmq5dfbidRlRnFaaygF3VayqWpMuhCvQNKJXLRH_CXJLUAKL-kho/s1600/256px-Maps_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes.gif" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="254" data-original-width="256" height="316" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgfeUOvxlfDU0ZXeNpaRxNbFpfSwF627mFNDmFBWbrRIxumFu7abDksnsMMyvy1XeUFptMxIuAelor0a9V8LocDgt8UFmq5dfbidRlRnFaaygF3VayqWpMuhCvQNKJXLRH_CXJLUAKL-kho/s320/256px-Maps_of_the_Armenian_Empire_of_Tigranes.gif" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wiki, Armenia and vassals 69 BC, note 'greater Armenia'</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<span style="font-size: small;"> </span><div><span style="font-size: small;">The rest of the political history of the Armenians was one
of occupation with periods of independence and sometimes greatness. It was often
bitterly fought over, changing hands multiple times. For long periods Armenia
was divided between Persia and whoever had control of Anatolia (the first time was in 387 AD between the Sassanid Persians and what was to become the Byzantines).</span></div><div><span style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b>Eastern and Western Armenia </b></span></div><div><span style="font-size: small;">The long standing and crucial division of Armenia was in 1555 AD between Persia
and the Ottoman Empire resulted in a ‘Western Armenia’ which was larger and richer and encompassed the iconic Mount Ararat and the smaller, eastern, Persian side. </span></div><div><span style="font-size: small;">(Persian) Eastern Armenia became occupied by Tsarist Russia (1828) and (after </span>a lot of struggle back and forwards) formed the borders of modern day Republic of Armenia (On
21 September 1991) after the collapse of the Soviet system. </div><div><br /></div><div>Western Armenia is now gone forever, as I will explain.</div><div><br /></div><div>The Ottomans had been progressively losing their European territories to former Christian subjects who obtained their independence and then often violently removed Muslims from<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjiRpOrJIdSqrUrV7c-Spid3_cWHvScgILwKFG3RQxiTBrMFu-YA0nm0Roda2DVQpTYx_0xVcnH9Z4lBiVLwpjeyh5i8d7dAB75HM-ijvpu9cIPaKYduUytr5RDAl6vvImitKwiqmR5Jy6/s1600/512px-Armenian_presence_within_modern_Turkish_borders_in_early_1600s.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="308" data-original-width="512" height="120" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjiRpOrJIdSqrUrV7c-Spid3_cWHvScgILwKFG3RQxiTBrMFu-YA0nm0Roda2DVQpTYx_0xVcnH9Z4lBiVLwpjeyh5i8d7dAB75HM-ijvpu9cIPaKYduUytr5RDAl6vvImitKwiqmR5Jy6/s200/512px-Armenian_presence_within_modern_Turkish_borders_in_early_1600s.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wiki, Armenians at the start of the Ottoman Empire</td></tr>
</tbody></table> their borders. </div><div>I will discuss this and the Armenian Genocide (1914-1918) in my next blog, but the attitude towards the large Christian heartland of Western Armenia inside what would become the bounds of modern day Turkey changed. </div><div>They were no longer seen with tolerance, even affection. Now they were viewed with fear and loathing. Armenian attitudes began to change. Some were caught up in the sweeping tide of nationalism, some remained loyal and others reacted to the increasing persecution.</div><div> </div><div style="text-align: center;"><b> Russia, Armenia's main ally, WW1 and a Russian Revolution in the middle of it</b></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;">From the start of WW1 the Ottomans did disastrously. By Sept 17 the Russians (often led by Armenia Generals) occupied a large part of North East
Anatolia including much of Ottoman 'Western Armenia'. The Russians already governed Eastern Armenia, now they set up a provisional government to administer Western Armenia. </span><span style="text-align: left;">On the Prussian front, </span><span style="text-align: left;">Russia had some initial successes but followed by massive losses, chaotic leadership and worker opposition back home, leading to the abdication of the Tsar and a brief transitional democratic government (February revolution). </span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;">In the same year, the far left Bolsheviks seized power (October 1917) and imposed one party state. </span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;">The Russian civil war raged from 1917–1922/1923. </span></div><div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBQqtBPQdsQfsqJKDoKMXb75FfBHd0jazvXlypdZAbc6ZkBp_UG4-Z8unIpPrcr4wLd79T0-lBexTgERy5aqjocAZCW-LReCUMlSy88OWa5nzjdgi20AOQ1iv7XRM2QptFsal0nkJhbxl4/s1600/800px-Western_Armenia_September_1917.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="546" data-original-width="800" height="136" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBQqtBPQdsQfsqJKDoKMXb75FfBHd0jazvXlypdZAbc6ZkBp_UG4-Z8unIpPrcr4wLd79T0-lBexTgERy5aqjocAZCW-LReCUMlSy88OWa5nzjdgi20AOQ1iv7XRM2QptFsal0nkJhbxl4/s200/800px-Western_Armenia_September_1917.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" lang="en">
<span style="font-size: xx-small;">Yerevanci, Russian incursion into Anatolia</span></h1>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table></div><div><br /></div><div>The ascendant Bolsheviks, still involved in a civil war, were now desperate for peace with Germany's allies. They wanted Turkey as a buffer and an ally against what had once been their European allies (or at least the allies of Tsarist Russia). </div><div>As soon as December 5, 1917, they signed a (Russian/Ottoman) armistice and in March 1918 concluded a treaty that arranged for withdrawal of their armies, giving Wester Armenia to the new Republic of Turkey and the disarming of the Armenians.</div><div><br /><p style="text-align: left;"> The Armenians (and Georgians), were closer allies to the White Russians, and they didn't agree. After deteriorating relations, the Armenian Genocide had begun inside Turkey at the start of WW1 (and continued until the overthrow of the last Sultan and the establishment of Ataturk's Republic in 1923). </p></div><div> As the Russians were withdrawing, Armenia (and Georgia) declared independence in May 1918 and Armenian volunteers hurried forward to try to hold Armenian land. Without Russian support, the Ottomans were able to drive them back and enter Eastern Armenia as well. The Armenians were only saved by the Armistice signed between the Ottomans and the rest of the Allies (<span class="ILfuVd"><span class="e24Kjd">Oct. 30, 1918)</span></span>. </div><div>
</div><div>The Allies, in the peace Treaty of Sèvres, wanted to dismember the remaining Ottoman Empire and carve up Anatolia, including rewarding Armenia<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhF5CTa38GLZ0MSzgoZWlec8JSR4MWOMSnMZDq4g-MyHdv8SyyNnYUfUAHp-1wDaXx6yDSz6l-kXC6wW9zqgV-VH557QjTVQ7A1sZ7wX5TNQquJFOXiT-X6eCHNc6KKjUjIuuGtgv8KUX5T/s1600/300px-Treaty_of_S%25C3%25A8vres_1920.svg.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="181" data-original-width="300" height="192" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhF5CTa38GLZ0MSzgoZWlec8JSR4MWOMSnMZDq4g-MyHdv8SyyNnYUfUAHp-1wDaXx6yDSz6l-kXC6wW9zqgV-VH557QjTVQ7A1sZ7wX5TNQquJFOXiT-X6eCHNc6KKjUjIuuGtgv8KUX5T/s320/300px-Treaty_of_S%25C3%25A8vres_1920.svg.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Initial division, rejected by Kemal Atatürk</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
by giving them Western Armenia.</div><div><br />
The Turkish National Movement under Kemal Atatürk rebelled against the partition of Turkey. They drove the Armenians and others from their territory and proclaimed the Republic of Turkey, ending the Ottoman era.</div><div><br /></div><div style="text-align: center;"><b>The Soviets and changing allegiances </b></div><div>The allies, fearing an alliance of the Soviets and the Germans, supplied arms to a loose coalition against the Bolsheviks (called the 'White Army') and even fought against the Red Army to prevent its spread.</div><div><br /></div><div>Lenin began supporting the new Republic of Turkey with arms and money.<br />
The Armenians were forced to seek an Armistice with the new Republic of Turkey, conceding the loss of Western Armenia.</div><div> </div><div>Even before they had a chance to sign the Turkish/ Armenian Armistice, Soviets entered Eastern Armenia on 29 November 1920. The last battle for Western (Turkish) Armenia, and the short-lived Armenian independence were both over.<br />After the genocide, only few Armenians remained in their ancestral lands in old 'Western Armenia' Eastern Turkey. </div><div>From 2 million (or more) Armenians in Turkey in 1914 there was 50,000 to 70,000 remaining in 2005, mostly in Istanbul. Many churches and monasteries were destroyed. All the Eastern Armenians can do now is stare across the border at what was once the very heart of their homeland.<br />
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<br />
<div align="center" class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b><span style="text-align: left;">Nagorno-Karabakh, once part of Armenia</span>.</b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
The Armenian enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh was a historical region of
Armenia dating back to the 1st century BC (when it took it from a region called 'Caucasian Albania'). </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">It became part of Persian Armenia but had considerable autonomy and the Persian appointed governors were often Armenian.<br />
From the Arab conquest (mid 7th century) through to
the Russian conquest (1822) Nagorno-Karabakh was self governed by various Armenian <i>meliks </i>(princes)
with Arabian, Turkish and Iranian overlords and also had periods of relative
independence.<br />
At the time of the Russian conquest it was part of the territory of a local Azeri overlord (Ibrahim Khalil Khan) who had been forced to acknowledge
Iranian supremacy. So it was Armenian province with an Azeri (middle-man) overlord. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">It became an autonomous region of the Russian Empire, ruled by
Russians.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>The Azeris and Azerbaijan</b></div><div class="Myparagraph">The Azeris are mainly ancestral Caucasians and Persians who absorbed Turkish culture from a long period of occupation and now speak a Turkish language, but follow the Iranian form of (Shi'ite) Islam. </div><div class="Myparagraph">They are sometimes referred to as Turks. </div><div class="Myparagraph">They form a large minority in Iran (in an adjacent region, also called Azerbaijan) and often ally with Turkey.</div></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">With the (far left) Bolshevik coup of October 17 (the October Revolution), the countries of the Southern Caucasus: Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia declared themselves democratic Republics (May 1918).</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><div class="Myparagraph">The Republic of Azerbaijan claimed Nagorno-Karabakh as an autonomous region within its borders (continuing the historically more 'recent' Azeri dominance over the mainly Armenian region). This was while the Armenian Republic was busy trying to survive against the Ottomans.</div></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"> <b>Azerbaijan, Russia's only source of oil at that time.</b></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
Russia at the time was seriously short of oil, dating back to well before WW1. Azerbaijan on the Caspian Sea was their only source back then. Baku had a lot of temporary foreign workers, especially Russian. There was already great tension between the Christian Armenians (traditionally favoured by the Christian Russians) on one side and the Muslim Azeris on the other.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
Civil war broke out in Baku in March 1918 when the Russian Soviets wanted to disarm the Azeris. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
It quickly spilt over into the Armenian-Azeri conflict. In the first fighting in Baku (<span style="color: cyan;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a class="nova-e-link nova-e-link--color-inherit nova-e-link--theme-decorated" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_Days" rel="noopener"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: small; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">here) </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_Days">t</a>here was civilian slaughter, mainly of Azeris. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">The Ottoman army no longer had to face Russia in the East and entered Baku in September of that year (1918) and slaughtered 10,000–20,000 Armenians in retaliation.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqRmE56QEtTmZ7Y6WbpMQ_HR-0HDmxS5YYwM5DHMxhxtknbna7lzlSYryXL45_JRYIxdXY5dydLjRy0KgPYl8ROvJ0me4Z-Fi8S0OWPQGPIeWyzElYbv5hmtWngO9b_fcwOzxJyWq9LrY4/s1600/256px-Azerbaijani_victims_in_Baku.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="158" data-original-width="256" height="196" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqRmE56QEtTmZ7Y6WbpMQ_HR-0HDmxS5YYwM5DHMxhxtknbna7lzlSYryXL45_JRYIxdXY5dydLjRy0KgPYl8ROvJ0me4Z-Fi8S0OWPQGPIeWyzElYbv5hmtWngO9b_fcwOzxJyWq9LrY4/s320/256px-Azerbaijani_victims_in_Baku.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Azeri victims in Baku, Azerbaijan State Archive</td></tr>
</tbody></table><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">Finally they (with some German support) entered Eastern Armenia in the dying days of WW1. The Armenians were saved from a disadvantageous treaty with the Ottomans when the remaining Allies and Ottomans signed an armistice (30 October 1918).<br /><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
After the Oct Armistice Azerbaijan no longer had Ottoman protection and the battle-hardened Armenians weren't fighting the Ottomans. They had some Russian equipment.<br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">They began to advance again on their Eastern border, until the British military command asked them to withdraw (Jan 19). There were assurances that their claim to Nagorno-Karabakh would be sorted out in the Paris Peace Conference. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">It wasn't, not that they didn't do rather well out of the now defunct peace treaty which gave them Western Armenia.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: center;"><b>Khosrov Sultanov</b></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
The Azerbaijans appointed Khosrov Sultanov, a local land owner and an ardent opponent to the Armenians, as Governor of Nagorno-Karabakh . </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">He had no intention of letting the Armenians have his home and began plans resolve his own 'Armenian question' by extreme means. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">There was protests, violent clashes, murders (mostly, but not only, of Armenians) and a bungled Armenian rebellion. Sultanov declared a Jihad (March 22–26 1920) in the then capital Shusha <span style="color: cyan;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a class="nova-e-link nova-e-link--color-inherit nova-e-link--theme-decorated" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shusha_massacre" rel="noopener"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: small; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">(here)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span>, ethnically cleansing it of Armenians.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br />
The fighting continued off and on till Nov 1920 with a big incursion by the Armenians into the region. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"> Meanwhile, the new Republican of Turkey was again pushing Armenia out of Western Armenia, which now had fewer and fewer Armenians. As they did it, t<span class="reference-text">here were reported instances of mass rape, murder and violence against the Armenian populace Kars and Alexandropol.(</span><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian_War"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;">here see 8</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span><span class="reference-text"><a class="mw-redirect" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahakn_N._Dadrian" title="Vahakn N. Dadrian"><span style="font-size: xx-small;">)</span></a></span><span class="reference-text"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish%E2%80%93Armenian_War#cite_note-Dad360-361-8">[8]</a> </span>.</span></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"> </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">The new Republican Turkey eventually threatened to invade Eastern Armenia if they didn't sue for peace and give up all claims over Western Armenia. The new peace treaty was signed, but the Soviets had already entered Eastern Armenia three days before this. The small Armenian Republic had likely been hoping for a White Army victory in Russia, but this was not to be and the Red Army quickly conquered the independent democratic republic which now became part of the Soviet union. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">The conflict was over, and Western Armenia had been 'cleansed' of Armenians</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiR555ZTFuDUbgUWfs1ilRmvPrmFQYXsRsyJd7e5HD4FWAIlQCemlll2FRRxygyObxgPsST3QGF7R5zEj4TiufCe8LoKXnzHi1SsFPl-yhcPmFqTvZ39swwcGKAoU05xAb_k6eL0cYuEqzN/s1600/Armenians_fleeing_Kars.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="158" data-original-width="250" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiR555ZTFuDUbgUWfs1ilRmvPrmFQYXsRsyJd7e5HD4FWAIlQCemlll2FRRxygyObxgPsST3QGF7R5zEj4TiufCe8LoKXnzHi1SsFPl-yhcPmFqTvZ39swwcGKAoU05xAb_k6eL0cYuEqzN/s1600/Armenians_fleeing_Kars.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Terrified Armenians fleeing Turkish forces at Kars </td></tr>
</tbody></table> </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">Lenin was courting Atatürk on one hand and was desperate for Azerbaijan's oil on the other. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">The contested region of Nagorno-Karabakh was returned to Azerbaijan (as an autonomous region) along with most (but not quite all) of Armenia's gains in the east. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">Shusha, the capital of Nagorno-Karabakh, had been cleansed of Armenians.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
The brief (first) Republic of Armenia had lost to Turkey, and then been conquered by the Soviets.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and the final days of the Soviet Era.</b></div>
Fast forward to the final days of the Soviet Era. The Soviet Union was officially dissolved on 26 December 1991, granting self-governing independence to the Republics.<br />
In the 'lead up' to this, the Armenian and Azeri conflict over the disputed region re-awakened. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">The parliament of 'the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast' in Azerbaijan voted to unify the region with Armenia (20 February 1988). </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">Karabakh Armenians began demonstrating in the new Nagorno-Karabakh capital, Stepanakert, and there were demonstrations in the capital of Armenia, Yervan.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">
This was <b>not</b> supported by the Supreme Soviet (perhaps because of oil, perhaps a desire not to reawaken a bitter local conflict) so when the Armenian and Azerbaijan republics were formed in 1991 the contested region remained with Azerbaijan. The population at that time was 76 percent Armenian and 23 percent Azeri, and clashes were becoming more violent. On 10 December 1991, in a referendum boycotted by local Azeris, approved the creation of an independent state.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br />
It's hard to know when the war exactly started as it followed a period of escalations but by late winter of 1992 there was full scale fighting, the Armenian Republic joining (again) with Russian equipment. By the 1994 cease fire the Armenians were in full control of most of the enclave (now an autonomous republic, but with troops from the Armenia Republic) and another 9% of Azerbaijan's territory
between the enclave and the Armenian border. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"> </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">Shusha, the previous capital, which had previously been 'cleansed' of Armenians had became an Azeri stronghold and was (for a time) almost destroyed, the Azeri population fled. </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br />Both sides claim atrocities.</div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">There had been pogroms against the Armenians (early) and massacres of civilians by Armenians later in the conflict (mostly when Azeri fighters, and armed defenders, were mixed in with their own villagers). </div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;">The worst was the Khojaly Massacre. <span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;">Azeri authorities claim the dead in this massacre included 613
civilians, including 106 women and 63 children.</span></span></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;">These events triggered an exodus of Azeris and Armenians from each others territories.</span></span></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;">Armenia and Azerbaijan are technically still at war, with a negotiated cease fire, and there are still border incidents. <span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;">Armenia is now in de facto control of 14% of the territory that Azerbaijan claimed in
its formation in 1991. Internationally Armenia is seen as the aggressor and there are demands that it withdraw.</span></span></span></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"> </span></span></span></div><div class="Myparagraph" style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;">Post note, I will discuss the latest conflict later. </span></span></span><br />
<h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: small;">Armenian History
and Nationalism.</span></h1>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Armenian nationalists sometimes emphasise the role of Armenia
in history (and their connection to it) to the point of distortion. Most of the supportive literature (I'm told) is dated and in Russian.<br />
Some see it as the cradle of all civilisation in the Biblical story,
since Noah's Ark landed on Mountain Ararat.<br />
They claim a direct descent from
the Urartians and maybe even Caucasian cultures in the region. The longer the presence of the Armenians, the stronger their identity and greater their claim to the land. </div><div class="Myparagraph"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph">Genetics support this connection but the language and culture is not an unbroken continuity. A puzzle is when the precursor the modern
Indo-European Armenian language arrived, and where it came from.</div><div class="Myparagraph"><br />
By the 2nd century BC,Indo-European Armenian was the only Armenian spoken . It is neither closer to the Anatolian or 'Persian' variants, adding to the puzzle of where it came from.<br />
Linguists have suggested that it was
present in the general region much earlier and it was already spoken in parts of the Urartu Kingdom. This is highly plausible but there is no direct evidence of this. </div><div class="Myparagraph"><br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
A recently DNA
study<span style="color: cyan;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif"> </span></span></span><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><a class="nova-e-link nova-e-link--color-inherit nova-e-link--theme-decorated" href="https://www.peopleofar.com/2018/09/16/new-dna-study-supports-an-armenian-origin-of-the-indo-europeans" rel="noopener"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: small; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="line-height: 107%;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">(here)</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span> of 8000 year old Armenian
remains suggest that the Caucasus region contributed maybe half the genetic
material to proto-Indo-Europeans (<b><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-weight: normal;">Yamnaya</span></b><b> </b>Culture, 3300–2600
BC), the other half came from Siberian hunter gatherers.</div><div class="Myparagraph"><br />There is an Armenian hypothesis (Armenia was the source of
the Indo-European language and culture). This is quite a stretch. </div><div class="Myparagraph"><br /></div><div class="Myparagraph">
Armenia and travel (recommended) to read more <a href="https://www.google.com/destination?q=Armenia&client=firefox-b-d&output=search&dest_mid=/m/0jgx&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiMpNe1h6fjAhXKrJ4KHfYcAt4Q6tEBKAQwA3oECAoQBw#dest_mid=/m/0jgx&tcfs=EhIKBy9tLzBqZ3gSB0FybWVuaWE"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a><br />
<br />
Next Month : The Fall of Ottoman Turkey and the Background to the Armenian Genocide <a href="https://www.neilport.com/2019/07/armenian-genocide-background.html"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a><br />
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</div>The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-35718389615202420622019-06-05T02:55:00.000-07:002019-08-01T16:17:03.234-07:00A (very) Brief Introduction to the True Aryans<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="35" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
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<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: black;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5RhWXYO9NIntWMpLwABz_Cx9tddDjwbQMpq5AnORc_Vca13yGYxLZJkvGH7Ub6g61V84rqEzoCsQPcVin90dvG2IE2n0rDBJuz4fd_mSTWd8nBRt0MSHQ6aCGT0pTmbo1iz850RFVkkIZ/s1600/Arno+Breker+Die+Party.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="237" data-original-width="350" height="135" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5RhWXYO9NIntWMpLwABz_Cx9tddDjwbQMpq5AnORc_Vca13yGYxLZJkvGH7Ub6g61V84rqEzoCsQPcVin90dvG2IE2n0rDBJuz4fd_mSTWd8nBRt0MSHQ6aCGT0pTmbo1iz850RFVkkIZ/s200/Arno+Breker+Die+Party.jpg" width="200" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arno Breker, Die Party 1939</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Home Page </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;">home page</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span><b> </b></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><b>The Real Aryans </b></span></div>
According to the Nazis the
Nordic/ Germanic stock descended from Aryans which were superior to all
other “races”. The Nazis believed that the intermarriage with the Semitic (and
other) races caused the downfall of the 'pure' Aryans. Their gruesome solution
was genocide, to purge the “inferior” races and establish a “Reich” that would last a
thousand years.<br />
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">They were wrong on many levels. I will only mention two points: the first is an earlier</span> historical
confusion between the Aryans and the Indo-European ancestors that the Germanic
people and the Aryans shared. This resulted in the Nazis claiming the marvellous Aryans as
their ancestors. They were more like (slightly distant) cousins than descendants.<br />
<br /></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">The second is the reference to
‘race’ and ‘pure race’ rather than ‘culture’. In many historical situations, 'race' becomes a problematic
concept. The greatest empires of the world, especially, became more and more racially diverse as they rose.
We only need to think about Rome, Britain and America as just a few examples.</span><br />
The great civilisations of the Aryans (Persia, Northern India and the
Oasis cities of Central Asia) were a long way from racially pure. The
regions that the Aryans moved into were populated when they arrived and
the Aryans, especially the Persians, were very tolerant of cultural and
religious difference, intermarrying and welcoming others of merit into
their ranks. </div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><span style="color: black;">
</span><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8eclYvvtNcs3x-6Fm2MJI7tHKjA5ctn6NAoIQh1cGUxXMjgukRcv0jIftmbuExOMbRuVsyGJxLfa6IRvJxS1zP717YzG8OMfSyP-rcflMF448DqoqvI-2QcySe9sn-5LLGVbaWV_RA6ED/s1600/320px-Major_Indo-Aryan_languages.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="335" data-original-width="320" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi8eclYvvtNcs3x-6Fm2MJI7tHKjA5ctn6NAoIQh1cGUxXMjgukRcv0jIftmbuExOMbRuVsyGJxLfa6IRvJxS1zP717YzG8OMfSyP-rcflMF448DqoqvI-2QcySe9sn-5LLGVbaWV_RA6ED/s200/320px-Major_Indo-Aryan_languages.png" width="190" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Indo-Aryan Languages</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><span style="color: white;">In India, for instance, one </span></span><span style="color: white;">DNA study suggested that northern Indians were fair <i>before </i>the Aryans
arrived and the Aryans contributed far more to the culture than they did to the
gene pool, and this sort of story is fairly common. </span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">Aryan comes from the self designation Ariya meaning something
like ‘kinsman’. </span><span style="color: white;"><span style="color: white;">They called Aryan Northern
India 'Aryavarta'<i> </i>and Aryan Iran 'Airyānąm', leading to 'Iran' (the land of Aryans).</span></span><br />
<span style="color: white;"><span style="color: white;"> </span>There was an almost identical term Airya (middle
Persian) meaning ‘noble and illustrious’ and these often became synonymous. At
first this was thought to be the meaning of the term ‘Aryan’. </span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: large;">So why was claiming ‘Aryan’ descent
so desirable?</span></span></h1>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">The Aryans were a clever and
marvellous people. For more than a millennium they dominated the greater part of the civilised world,
especially in the East. They established great civilisations in India (1500
BC – 500 BC) having a lasting impact on the language and culture of India
and well beyond). Their presence in the civilisations along
the Silk Road in Central Asia was their oldest. </span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2YGWrYWLWvCxanrlcDBeLLEUe1GvaYUkm2aJ_MALrZq2M45h5dv9be5El0tpmI1dgAWhYSCGdhy3xa0HA43bBzHjAUtkzqm8c61SNeea0sJwF2MqlPppgvFkxIUDiQPev66dYG1B3aavg/s1600/persian+empire.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="142" data-original-width="200" height="142" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2YGWrYWLWvCxanrlcDBeLLEUe1GvaYUkm2aJ_MALrZq2M45h5dv9be5El0tpmI1dgAWhYSCGdhy3xa0HA43bBzHjAUtkzqm8c61SNeea0sJwF2MqlPppgvFkxIUDiQPev66dYG1B3aavg/s200/persian+empire.png" width="200" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">Achaemenid (Persian) Empire, Wiki</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: white;">They created the first of the
world’s super powers (Persia) which, in some measures was the greatest empire ever
seen. And Persia was an empire which kept coming back, even after defeat.</span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglFSsxjpfvOmKdZTZweDZEeDL0pF_rbwwtlkdy71lRHa1qAnXtnZOtRyDG_V65mQ5ewdaJpsDq6HKjFg26wgJXRxe0PZlfz8vWt9jVF1YmBgW14aN5Qs8KcVhfXadH1_d_2pmlDvU84Wg2/s1600/Gold_scythian_belt_title%252C.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="122" data-original-width="128" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglFSsxjpfvOmKdZTZweDZEeDL0pF_rbwwtlkdy71lRHa1qAnXtnZOtRyDG_V65mQ5ewdaJpsDq6HKjFg26wgJXRxe0PZlfz8vWt9jVF1YmBgW14aN5Qs8KcVhfXadH1_d_2pmlDvU84Wg2/s1600/Gold_scythian_belt_title%252C.JPG" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">Scythian belt </span>
<br />
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<span style="color: white;">Urek Meniashvili Wiki</span></div>
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<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="endnote text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="table of authorities"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="macro"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="toa heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Bullet 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Number 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="10" QFormat="true" Name="Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Closing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Default Paragraph Font"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="List Continue 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Message Header"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="11" QFormat="true" Name="Subtitle"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Salutation"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Date"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text First Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Note Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Body Text Indent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Block Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Hyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="FollowedHyperlink"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="22" QFormat="true" Name="Strong"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="20" QFormat="true" Name="Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Document Map"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Plain Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="E-mail Signature"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Top of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Bottom of Form"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal (Web)"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Acronym"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Address"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Cite"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Code"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Definition"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Keyboard"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Preformatted"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Sample"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Typewriter"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="HTML Variable"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Normal Table"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="annotation subject"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="No List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Outline List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Simple 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Classic 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Colorful 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Columns 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Grid 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 7"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table List 8"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table 3D effects 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Contemporary"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Elegant"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Professional"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Subtle 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Web 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Balloon Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" Name="Table Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" UnhideWhenUsed="true"
Name="Table Theme"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Placeholder Text"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="1" QFormat="true" Name="No Spacing"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" SemiHidden="true" Name="Revision"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="34" QFormat="true"
Name="List Paragraph"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="29" QFormat="true" Name="Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="30" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Quote"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="60" Name="Light Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="61" Name="Light List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="62" Name="Light Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="63" Name="Medium Shading 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="64" Name="Medium Shading 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="65" Name="Medium List 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="66" Name="Medium List 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="67" Name="Medium Grid 1 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="68" Name="Medium Grid 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="69" Name="Medium Grid 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="70" Name="Dark List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="71" Name="Colorful Shading Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="72" Name="Colorful List Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="73" Name="Colorful Grid Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="19" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="21" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Emphasis"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="31" QFormat="true"
Name="Subtle Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="32" QFormat="true"
Name="Intense Reference"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="33" QFormat="true" Name="Book Title"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="37" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" Name="Bibliography"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="39" SemiHidden="true"
UnhideWhenUsed="true" QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="41" Name="Plain Table 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="42" Name="Plain Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="43" Name="Plain Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="44" Name="Plain Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="45" Name="Plain Table 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="40" Name="Grid Table Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="Grid Table 1 Light"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51" Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52" Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 1"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 2"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 3"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 4"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 5"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46"
Name="Grid Table 1 Light Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="47" Name="Grid Table 2 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="48" Name="Grid Table 3 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="49" Name="Grid Table 4 Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="50" Name="Grid Table 5 Dark Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="51"
Name="Grid Table 6 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="52"
Name="Grid Table 7 Colorful Accent 6"/>
<w:LsdException Locked="false" Priority="46" Name="List Table 1 Light"/>
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<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
<span style="color: white;">From 9th century BC - 4th century AD the Aryans formed one of the greatest nomadic tribes to ever dominate the vast Eurasian Steppe, the Scythians.
The Scythians developed a rich culture characterised by
opulent tombs (kurgans). They briefly had control over Media and played a
leading role in the destruction of the Assyrian Empire. For a while, they had a
very strong presence as far as China, Mongolia, Northern India and Central Asia. While they are mostly known as tattooed horse nomads, they were also famous for metalwork and a brilliant art style.</span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<h1 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: white;"><span style="font-size: large;">Origin and migration of the Aryans</span></span></h1>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZXwDmNmuhiUqgBVDQSQ0Ug911QfL7lBrIgRJAWClZYzXWFjed0apZ-Wh_zdEOCW7hLo_OvhVgsaTjaljp281s7sPVgvz5Fat5bUMSIsx1GC2WSse4frJV4kzm6CfAB2FTCQiim0XySYqk/s1600/Indo-Iranian_origins+Dbachmann++Wiki.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="530" data-original-width="581" height="182" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZXwDmNmuhiUqgBVDQSQ0Ug911QfL7lBrIgRJAWClZYzXWFjed0apZ-Wh_zdEOCW7hLo_OvhVgsaTjaljp281s7sPVgvz5Fat5bUMSIsx1GC2WSse4frJV4kzm6CfAB2FTCQiim0XySYqk/s200/Indo-Iranian_origins+Dbachmann++Wiki.png" width="200" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">Andronova Culture, Wiki</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;"> The Aryans developed from
pastoralists in the Steppe north of the Caspian Sea at the start of the Middle
Bronze Age, 2100 BC (recognizable as the Sintashta culture, and then the
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Andronovo culture). They reached prominence by developing faster spoke-wheeled
chariots, more powerful horses, and powerful composite war bows. They are also likely
to have developed the first cavalry. They began spreading out across the whole
of the Great Steppe, eventually dominating this vast area from the edge of the
Balkans to Mongolia (till the rise of Huns, Turks and Mongols in the east and
the Slavs and Germanic tribes in the west). </span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">The first group of civilised
Aryans developed around the Aral Sea where they learnt farming from the <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Oxus Civilization (BMAC), absorbing much of
their culture and religious ideas. It is thought this was where Zoroaster lived
and taught. </span></span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">From about 1900 BC, there was a climate change with the
steppe becoming drier and cooler and the monsoons failing in the Indus valley.
This both induced the Aryans to spread out and weakened and depopulated their civilised
neighbours (farmers, some of whom did not irrigate). It gave an advantage to the
Aryan nomadic herding and warfare. Aryans (technically Indo-Aryans) spread out
through Afghanistan, Nepal, a large part of Northern India and Pakistan, a
process that continued till about 1500 BC. </span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">There was also an Indo-Aryan dynasty ruling the Hurrian
Kingdom of Mitanni (1500 to 1300 BC) in northern Mesopotamia, but this is not
part of a large scale migration.</span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">The early Aryans did not have a written language, so their
movement into Eastern Persia is poorly documented until they reached the
western part of Persia, around 800 BC, where they came to the notice of the
Assyrians and the Elamites.</span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">The spread of Aryan nomads eastward
over the Great Steppe is even more difficult to trace, with different nomadic
tribes and alliances, a large time frame and the civilised neighbours using
different names. There were white men at the edges of what is now China<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from at least 1900 BC. The Yuezhi (red hair and blue eyes) may have been initially
Indo-Aryan but were more likely Indo-European cousins and occupied a region now
held by the Turkic Uyghur people of China. To this day, some Uyghurs have fair
hair and blue eyes. </span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNiP_qDJ3bJG07bVtQhzn76sUPJ7yyyeAFE6maB_xIm0mlIut3vdZFjHJQ5T1c08f0gMDUTtMpWxECwMdPsnEahPkcZ2M8X1Uy0pBBzlwzFEu6CQVKPwlx7wP_0ZoU3tAV73GPykjTipO1/s1600/Bust_of_a_man_from_Khalchayan+Yuezhi.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1212" data-original-width="800" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiNiP_qDJ3bJG07bVtQhzn76sUPJ7yyyeAFE6maB_xIm0mlIut3vdZFjHJQ5T1c08f0gMDUTtMpWxECwMdPsnEahPkcZ2M8X1Uy0pBBzlwzFEu6CQVKPwlx7wP_0ZoU3tAV73GPykjTipO1/s200/Bust_of_a_man_from_Khalchayan+Yuezhi.jpg" width="131" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: white;">Yuezhi man (Artacoana Wiki)</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">They provided the earliest mummies in the Tarim Basin,
preserved by the unique cold climate. The Greeks incorrectly called them ‘<i>Tókharoi</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Tocharians)’ after a Bactrian tribe, and the
name has now stuck. The powerful Wusun horsemen to the north of China may have had a similar
origin. The more distinctive Scythians arrived later.</span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">The spread of the Aryans north of the Black Sea is again
difficult to trace. The nearest civilised people, the Greeks had lost writing in
a Greek Dark Ages and were only just beginning to regain it (by adapting a Phoenician script) in the Archaic Age (800
BC onwards).</span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">It is not unlikely, that the <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_qkxHqsSJQyE1IXCL7nEgsZ6V5jonl0I2OK3e8xRYQbBoCdsPuUmAnCMvF3ApUDXjst5zYsDDUxH2zhlDGOQDRaFlq-H7waWtuGpOCp7RTlQZT5Lg-IkX1FsFQoKJMj-BBdimUy2nvgK0/s1600/Thraco-Cimmerian.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="316" data-original-width="481" height="131" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_qkxHqsSJQyE1IXCL7nEgsZ6V5jonl0I2OK3e8xRYQbBoCdsPuUmAnCMvF3ApUDXjst5zYsDDUxH2zhlDGOQDRaFlq-H7waWtuGpOCp7RTlQZT5Lg-IkX1FsFQoKJMj-BBdimUy2nvgK0/s200/Thraco-Cimmerian.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Overview of Thraco-Cimmerian Sites</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
mysterious people that by tradition have been called </span><span style="color: white;">'Thraco-Cimmerian' slowed their advance westward,
because the story of the Aryan nomads doesn’t seem to start till the raids of the Cimmerians, which were first mentioned<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>by the
Assyrians in 800 BC. They were said to be displaced by the new kids on the block, the (Aryan)
Scythians. </span><br />
<span style="color: white;">We don’t really know the origin of the Cimmerians or the 'Thraco-Cimmerians' or whether they were truly the same group. Some
say Thracian, some say Aryan with equal confidence. Proto-Celtic and part of the Koban (Caucasian) culture have all been suggested.</span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">The Scythians seemed to have developed or adopted a number
of innovations in mounted warfare but one of their greatest advantages was
their cultural and political sophistication including their own kings, with
large scale federations during warfare, their trading and organised tribute
from surrounding sedentary communities . <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<span style="color: white;">
</span><br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">(In my novels, I have put the blame on drought and marauding
Aryan barbarians in the north for triggering the Bronze Age collapse (1200 and 1150 BC).)</span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: white;">Notes: The terms Indo-European and
Indo-Aryan are linguistic terms, initially referring </span><span style="color: white;">to language groups then became loosely applied to race and culture, which of course are different. The Aryan cultures and religions of </span><span style="color: white;">'Vedic' northern India, Persia, Central Asia (and eventually Scythia) had many differences, some very great. I</span><span style="color: white;"> have used 'Aryan' to</span> refer to a broad cultural group, but it can be used interchangeably with Indo-Aryan.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span style="color: black;"><span style="color: white;">This is a revision of a previous post. It is a vast topic and I have aimed for brevity. </span></span></div>
<br />
Links: Tarim Mummies <span style="color: black;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarim_mummies"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span><br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> Scythians <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scythians"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> <br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> A (huge) Wiki article, Indo-Aryan Migration </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a></span><br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: small; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"> </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>Indo-Aryan Languages </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: small; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> </a></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span> </span></span><br />
<br />
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The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-15955723858287682942019-05-02T17:02:00.001-07:002019-08-01T16:17:29.351-07:00The Remarkable Phoenicians<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="Myparagraph">
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;">home page</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="color: cyan; text-align: center;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 15.6933px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><br /></span></span></span></span></span></span></span>
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: center;">
The Phoenicians, Remarkable Survivors </h3>
Three land based civilisations in and near Mesopotamia managed to survived
the Bronze Age collapse <span class="ilfuvd">(1200 to 1150 BC)</span>.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTcHCLwQVp6gJeHKDdC-Fzk8tvNaveDfBisXTQFRBYlESMCwfukLAFGxLV9Hyu4kXmKuh0cqEKg9GlGxN_ODOFRIc_-wTf5Ep1TGx6T_rwtXpDA2-ycfeqi777cD02G-eYBNdtpuLbzx0-/s1600/391px-Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC-1.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="480" data-original-width="391" height="200" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTcHCLwQVp6gJeHKDdC-Fzk8tvNaveDfBisXTQFRBYlESMCwfukLAFGxLV9Hyu4kXmKuh0cqEKg9GlGxN_ODOFRIc_-wTf5Ep1TGx6T_rwtXpDA2-ycfeqi777cD02G-eYBNdtpuLbzx0-/s200/391px-Ancient_Egypt_and_Mesopotamia_c._1450_BC-1.png" width="162" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span class="mw-mmv-source-author"><span class="mw-mmv-author"><a class="new" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%82&action=edit&redlink=1" title="User:Свифт (page does not exist)">Свифт/Svift</a> 1500 BC Wiki</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The best
of them were the <span class="ilfuvd"><b>Assyrians</b> (in the north) </span>with their stable
monarchy, powerful army and secure borders<span class="ilfuvd">, but even they (from
</span><span class="mw-headline">1055–936 BC)</span><span class="ilfuvd"> had a very significant (but temporary) setback when they encountered new Semitic peoples (Arameans who had arrived in </span><span class="ilfuvd">Damascus). </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="ilfuvd"></span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="ilfuvd"><b>Babylon</b> </span><span class="ilfuvd">continued to struggle, usually
badly, under pressure from the Assyrians and other neighbours, until it joined
a grand alliance to finally defeat the (temporarily weakened) Assyrians (</span>626 BC) and grab its <span class="ilfuvd">empire. They had reestablished their former greatness, but it only lasted less than
a hundred years before the Persians, under Cyrus the Great, came knocking at their
gates.</span><span class="ilfuvd"> </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="ilfuvd">The <b>Elamites of Susa</b> (at the edge of
Iran/ Mesopotamia) did well for a short time until 1100 BC and after that they suffered
for centuries under the aggressive Assyrians.They eventually became part of Persia with
the fall of the Assyrians.</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi56EHPjc76KVVK-gBrnTTkV4LIU6HdGq1rVqO_iQX8SowOEI1TfnNbnqre6QO_O0Sd_IWiWIspsWSFrqnUgna0-KrgiXKudJfe8oO_6P47ggT14C60MRZkhvKFJVOohvTOLJkYzSMmIjS9/s1600/1024px-Phoenicia_map-en.svg.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="680" data-original-width="1024" height="212" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi56EHPjc76KVVK-gBrnTTkV4LIU6HdGq1rVqO_iQX8SowOEI1TfnNbnqre6QO_O0Sd_IWiWIspsWSFrqnUgna0-KrgiXKudJfe8oO_6P47ggT14C60MRZkhvKFJVOohvTOLJkYzSMmIjS9/s320/1024px-Phoenicia_map-en.svg.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kordas, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="ilfuvd">By contrast, <b>the Phoenicians </b>not only
survived in this difficult period, they thrived! </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="ilfuvd">From a collection of Semitic city states
on the coast of Lebanon, the greatest of which was Byblos, t</span>hey established
a <span class="ilfuvd">great trading and naval empire linked by a string of
coastal colonies and trading posts throughout </span>the Mediterranean, past
the straits of Gibraltar as far as southern Portugal and a small part of the
Atlantic coast of Morocco. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<span class="ilfuvd">The Bronze Age collapse freed them from
being virtual colonies (shipbuilders and suppliers of Lebanese cedar) to the
Egyptians. The </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Mycenaeans, the city of </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Ugarit and
the Hittites had all disappeared and the Egyptians couldn’t match them as sailors, so the waters of the Mediterranean were wide open to them. </span></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
They had extraordinary skill in seamanship and trading and a great position
in the centre of trade. They set the standard in shipbuilding, glass-making,
<span class="ilfuvd"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">fine tin-glazed pottery, bronze </span></span>and
silver work. The also developed ways of mass producing their artifacts.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Their initial ships had a sail (at least one), a steering oar (at least one), a horse-head or similar decoration on the prow and only one bank of
oars. Some have falsely credited them with all sorts of sailing innovations that were
available before their time (e.g. the keel, the ram), but they were widely seen as masters of the craft during their time. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
They developed heavy, wide, big-bellied transport ships
that could stack cargo, carrying somewhere in the region of 450 tons. Their
greatest innovation was <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">their were light, fast,
highly maneuverable warships </span>with two (<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">biremes</span>)
or three levels of rowers (triremes) and supplementary sails. They had rams,
grappling hooks, spear men and archers and used various techniques to sink,
board, or break the oars of enemy ships and were taken up by their later rivals, the Greeks. Late in the period, ballistas and catapults
were sometimes added.Their job was defend the merchant fleets from pirates and other
raiders, and for a long time, the Phoenicians ruled the seas. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Phoenicians were also well known for their alphabet,
derived from an earlier Egyptian version (1850 BC). It spread throughout their
vast trading empire. It was able to be adapted to different languages and
facilitated literacy beyond scribes and the religious elite. It became the
ancestor of almost every alphabet in use today. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Sadly, though they possessed an extensive literature nothing
much remains beyond religious and burial inscriptions. It was written on
perishable material, like papyrus, and needed to be endlessly transcribed. Some
of it was likely taken to Carthage but all was lost when the Romans sacked that
city (146 BC) and scattered what they didn't carry away.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDxeHxJCPPoFduQ8zNm65OP7OSiuwmEH5s65h-gv-mFktXmcpqJlCC2lpXdi62N5SBSK3RSFc6dWw9z1w1RNUpMzuz9iQfALCBXO9A73ciN8MrLB7rGHpTzUTvwZzj06r94U-nXdLeFmQY/s1600/PhoenicianTrade.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="418" data-original-width="558" height="239" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDxeHxJCPPoFduQ8zNm65OP7OSiuwmEH5s65h-gv-mFktXmcpqJlCC2lpXdi62N5SBSK3RSFc6dWw9z1w1RNUpMzuz9iQfALCBXO9A73ciN8MrLB7rGHpTzUTvwZzj06r94U-nXdLeFmQY/s320/PhoenicianTrade.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Yom https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans freely admitted what
they owed to the Phoenicians. Their influence can be traced as far as the Iberian
and Celtic worlds, but we still don’t know many things about them, like how they
survived the Bronze Age collapse, or much about the first four hundred years.
It may have been their Golden Age or maybe this came later.<br />
On one hand, they were unmatched
on the seas but on the other hand, population and trade was reduced until
the world could recover. By the time the world had sufficiently recovered, their great maritime rivals, the Greeks had begun their own recovery. 776 BC was the time of first Olympics, and is taken as a significant date in the Greek recovery.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Phoenicians were not an empire in the military sense (for Carthage, see below). The population
in their colonies were a mix of locals and others. The Phoenicians didn’t have
the numbers to fill them all. It seems likely that some of their ‘colonies’ were
pre-existing towns in handy maritime positions before the Phoenicians sailed
(or rowed) in with their rich trading goods and superior culture.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Most of their cities and colonies were independent and self
governing. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
There are many maps dividing the Mediterranean into Phoenician
and Greek spheres of influence. That doesn’t mean that individual Phoenician
merchants stopped visiting Greek areas as they recovered. It just outlines an area of political influence. It may also underestimate their naval dominance during the Greek Dark Ages.<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9wWH4YySXPIARM76LTRqIhm4kmD10rKc3qjbFFa1Dsynan1zkFT7LYMScXx0o8P3zNIq3SoPO5bKQvUG7zPiX6uv38-Xqn4kH0my4Hd-6S4fxODZ9_2it-gSLEHawgpnHoc1seNrimPgN/s1600/330px-Griechischen_und_ph%25C3%25B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="188" data-original-width="330" height="182" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9wWH4YySXPIARM76LTRqIhm4kmD10rKc3qjbFFa1Dsynan1zkFT7LYMScXx0o8P3zNIq3SoPO5bKQvUG7zPiX6uv38-Xqn4kH0my4Hd-6S4fxODZ9_2it-gSLEHawgpnHoc1seNrimPgN/s320/330px-Griechischen_und_ph%25C3%25B6nizischen_Kolonien.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span class="mw-mmv-source-author"><span class="mw-mmv-author"><a class="new" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Gepgepgep&action=edit&redlink=1" title="User:Gepgepgep (page does not exist)">Gepgepgep</a> (German captions) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicia</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The Phoenicians lived through many turbulent times and again proved to be great survivors. They were
mostly peaceful, with powerful navies, but not much of an army beyond a
citizen’s militia. They got on well with their cousins, the Israelites, and the
newer Semitic tribes. The Philistines looked up to them and gradually embraced their culture and language. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
When faced with a local superpower, they were forced to
surrender and pay tribute. Their strongest city, Tyre built a fortified island off
their coast which allowed them to survive attacks by the Egyptians and multiple
others. The Assyrians besieged them 5 times: once for 4 yrs and once for 5 yrs.
After the Assyrians were finally defeated, the resurrected Babylonians besieged them for 13 yrs before
agreements for tribute were struck. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
When the Persians, under Cyrus the Great, conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the Phoenicians
peacefully transferred their allegiance and tribute to the Persians. While they
thrived under enlightened Persian rule, they had begun to lose some of their cultural dominance to Persian culture. They also continued to lose their maritime dominance to the Greeks and their previous colony, Carthage. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
When Alexander the Great conquered the Persians, the Phoenicians offered surrender peacefully again, that was until Alexander demanded he
be allowed to make a sacrifice at Tyre’s holiest and most famous temple.<br />
To the
people of Tyre this would be a sacrilege, but Alexander was not a man to say no to. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Tyre stood alone. Alexander besieged Tyre for over six months in 332 BC. His ingenious land based assaults (e.g. building a causeway) were defeated by the equally ingenious Tyrians until he realised he had gained a navy, and had offers for him to borrow more. It allowed him to overwhelm Tyre's navy by brute force. He was said
to have killed 6,000 of the defenders, crucified a further 2,000 Tyrians on the
beach and sold most of the rest, 30,000 people, into slavery.<br />
Had I mentioned that Alexander was a man you didn't say 'no' to? </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The cities of Lebanon remain today, after
passing through the hands of many conquerors, but 332 BC is usually taken as
the end of the Phoenician era. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<b>Some probable misconceptions about the Phoenicians</b></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
1. “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">They were named
after their rare and expensive purple dye, produced with difficulty from the murex
shellfish</i>”. The Phoenicians refered to themselves as citizens of their
mother city, or Canaanites. The French historian, <span class="notranslate"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">Françoise Briquel-Chatonnet</span></span> asserts that
the classic Greek name ‘P<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">hoiníkē</span><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">’<i> </i>(Phoenicians)
</span>comes from the Mycenaean<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenaean_Greek" title="Mycenaean Greek"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"></span></a> <i>po-ni-ki-jo</i>, <i>po-ni-ki
</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">and<i> </i>this in turn</span>, is
a borrowing from Ancient Egyptian<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_language" title="Ancient Egyptian language"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"></span></a><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"> (</span></span> <i>fnḫw )</i> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>meaning "woodcutters" or
“carpenters” (after the famous Lebanese Cyprus). If she is correct, the famous
purple dye was named after (a name for) the Phoenician people and not visa versa.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
2. “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Phoenicians dominated
trade in the Red Sea and possibly went as far as India</i>”. The ancient spice
trade between Arabia and India goes back millennia. It was monopolised by the
local Arabs who were also great sailors. From Arabia it was mainly overland until
rather late in ancient history. In Egypt, wood had to be imported. It was alright if you were the Pharaoh, but locally made merchant
boats relied on papyrus reeds, making the Egyptians inferior sailors. If
they mounted an exploratory expedition they usually hired Phoenicians and ordered Phoenician ships, but this hardly translated into trading dominance. Herodotus claimed one such Egyptian funded Phoenician expedition
circumnavigated Africa, returning via the Mediterranean, after 3 years. This was only one of the Phoenician and Carthaginian expeditions.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
3. “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Phoenicians regular
traded with Ireland, Cornwall and/ or Germany”</i>. Regular trade across the
English channel dates to Neolithic times and continued in the Bronze Age and beyond. In the Bronze Age the then people of Britain were making boats of oak planks sewn together by yew. By the end of the Greek Dark Ages, the Celts (who were able shipbuilders, mariners
and traders locally) had set up a busy cross channel trading network. It is the reason that Ireland, Wales, Scotland and Britain absorbed the (dominant) Celtic culture (from across the channel). Ireland and its people were able to acquire a proud Celtic culture and a Celtic language, though genetically they remained closer to the early people of Britain.<br />
Carthage may have mounted exploratory expeditions further into the
Atlantic but this didn’t mean they were responsible for tin or other trade with
Britain and Ireland. They did move further into Gaul in preparation for their second
war with the Romans.<br />
4. <i>"They had to follow the coast and only sailed during the day." </i>The Phoenicians regularly undertook journeys of more than a days sailing. Their warships had sails and rowers, but their merchants relied on wind and sail, so their speed and distance traveled varied with the wind. The Mediterranean has lots of landmarks allowing travel away from the coast and the Phoenicians did steer by the stars at night.<br />
<br />
<b>Post script to the Phoenicians, Carthage (</b><b>founded ? 814 BC)</b><br />
<b><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5cl86ig8bMrn16GT_5KSKW4fvlr-fjvJyQiHJ6eHEevP1GIwpGeTcW2tDQyFEuJOfEPUI6puPwenDK92Dpql13jsk6to7ypTjvAsuyDMofJV7-SrWauFsS95OBPHxu0xpG7n3nU0dCXoy/s1600/959px-Carthaginianempire+large.PNG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="900" data-original-width="959" height="600" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh5cl86ig8bMrn16GT_5KSKW4fvlr-fjvJyQiHJ6eHEevP1GIwpGeTcW2tDQyFEuJOfEPUI6puPwenDK92Dpql13jsk6to7ypTjvAsuyDMofJV7-SrWauFsS95OBPHxu0xpG7n3nU0dCXoy/s640/959px-Carthaginianempire+large.PNG" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span class="mw-mmv-source-author"><span class="mw-mmv-author"><a class="extiw" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Javierfv1212" title="en:User:Javierfv1212">Javierfv1212</a> https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthage</span></span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</b><b></b><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<b> </b><br />
Many Phoenicians fled to their former colony of Carthage which
had already been taking over from the original Phoenicians for many centuries. It was more militaristic and behaved more like an empire, using its dominant navy and learning land warfare from many places, including the Greeks.<br />
Carthage took
over former Phoenician colonies and places like Sardinia (sometimes forcefully). It fought multiple wars with the Greeks over Sicily 580–265 BC and fought hard against the Romans
twice. After the Romans forced a war on their remnant population for a third and last time, they were finally defeated in 146 BC. <br />
<br />
Read more <a href="https://www.ageofempires.com/history/phoenician-culture/"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span style="font-family: "calibri" , sans-serif; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a><br />
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The Paladin Chronicleshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00261504498763548101noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3064488255633185548.post-62678488636395230382019-04-06T21:19:00.001-07:002023-01-15T13:14:08.586-08:00The Bronze Age Collapse<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Home Page </span><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><a href="https://www.neilport.com/2013/10/"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">home page</span></span></span></span></a></span></span></span></span></div>
<h2 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
</h2>
<h2 align="center" style="text-align: center;">
The greatest disaster to ever visit
the ancient world </h2>
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<br /></div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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<div class="Myparagraph">
Sometime in the fifty years between 1200 and 1150 BC there
was a catastrophic collapse of much of the civilised world including the Mycenaean Kingdoms<span class="MsoHyperlink"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;">, </span></span>the Hittite Empire and the Eastern Coast of the Mediterranean.<span class="MsoHyperlink"><span color="windowtext" style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"> </span></span>Every important Bronze Age
site from Troy to Gaza showed ‘destruction layers’ from sacking and burning.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Anatolia (Turkey) did not recover to a similar level of civilisation for another thousand years. Hattusa, the
Hittite capital, was burned and forever abandoned. Troy (VII) was burned more
than once and briefly abandoned during the Greek Dark Ages. It did not regain
it’s prominence until Roman times. It was most likely the first of these sackings (Troy
VII a) that inspired the great legend of the fall of Troy.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
None of the Mycenaean palaces of the Late Bronze Age
survived. The destruction was heaviest at palaces and fortified sites but up to
90% of even small sites in the Peloponnese were abandoned, suggesting a major
depopulation. Literacy was lost. The great city of <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Mycenae was never reoccupied. </span>It ushered in the “Greek Dark Ages”
that lasted for four hundred years and led to a cultural memory in the Archaic period of a lost 'golden' age ('the Works and Days' Hesiod).<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Egypt struggled for a while, after losing its empire (Syria and Canaan), before finally succumbing in mid twelfth century BC (during
the reign of Ramses VI).<br />
<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ugarit, the great trading city on the north coast
of Syria, a client city of the Hittites, was never re-occupied. It had an extensive (clay tablet) library and gives us some
of the best accounts of the time including a plea from Ammurapi, their young king,
to the king of Cyprus. “My father, behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my
cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country.” He had sent his
ships and chariots to defend the central Hittite region from the disaster overtaking them all.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
The written records are best in Egypt and Ugarit but that
was only a small (but important) part of a great cataclysm. The collapse and
destruction reached as far as Italy (e.g. the ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Terramare’</i>
(black Earth) culture of the Emelia region) and destroyed all other Mycenean
sites ( Northern Greece, Sicily, Crete, the Mediterranean and Adriatic islands,
Albania, the Dalmatian coast and maybe southern Italy).<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
There were massive dislocations of entire peoples even as
far away as southern Britain (where there was an invasion of proto-Celtic people of
the Urnfield culture). It extended all across Europe, the Middle East and Central
Asia.<br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh96oVFyC8tlr5fo1Jg_rl5f5i57Ky5kmU0rsRJKOLKsbqhbYciP_XLc6DIex-WoiNkKcYVgNrK78lta2-L1j4ELFzKY9nmJcfX9-6L7rDAOQPIiqbekH5dsnvzvpIl3KnXLz2UhjpW7_2t/s1600/Wells_Hellenic_races.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1360" data-original-width="1248" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh96oVFyC8tlr5fo1Jg_rl5f5i57Ky5kmU0rsRJKOLKsbqhbYciP_XLc6DIex-WoiNkKcYVgNrK78lta2-L1j4ELFzKY9nmJcfX9-6L7rDAOQPIiqbekH5dsnvzvpIl3KnXLz2UhjpW7_2t/s320/Wells_Hellenic_races.png" width="293" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">H.G. Wells <i style="font-size: 12.8px;">The Outline of History </i><span style="font-size: 12.8px;">1920</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
In Greece it was the time of the (now discredited) Dorian invasion, but when
the dust settled centuries later, Greeks had a new culture and new dialects and
many new people had arrived in their north and in Anatolia. Aramaic
speakers had arrived (or spread out) in the middle East and the Aryans (Persians)
had arrived in Iran, finally conquering the last of the Elamites.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
For thirty years Egypt and the cities along the East Mediterranean
coast had suffered from devastating raids of the ‘sea peoples’ attacking Egypt
and cities along East Mediterranean coast. Though it is not known for sure, it
is likely that most were not adventurers looking to take advantage of the sudden
weakness of wealthy sophisticated countries. Most were fleeing war and famine, looking
for new homes. Two of the sea peoples established or resettled cities: the Philistines (Myceneans)
were discussed in my earlier blog <a href="http://bit.ly/2SIA8Iv"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">here </span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a> and to the north in what is currently Israel, the Sherden (likely Nuragic Sardinians) established El-Ahwat (meaning 'the walls'), mentioned in the bible as Harosheth Haggoyim. The Israelites didn't seem to like them any more than they did the Philistines and the Sherden, for all their prowess, had moved into a dangerous and difficult world. Their city, and their people, only achieved any prominence (and some dominance) for barely fifty years before fading into history. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph" style="text-indent: 0in;">
<br />
Coming back to the last king
of Ugarit, invaders were not the only problem for the young king. Eshuwara, the senior governor of
Cyprus, wrote back warning him that “(it was) the people from your country
(and) your own ships (who) did this!” Like a rebellion on the Titanic, they were fighting amongst themselves. The surrounding
land and the great city was laid waste and sacked by its own people, at a time
when the world was crashing down all around them. The ruler of Carchemish in
northern Syria sent help, but it arrived too late.<br />
<br />
The Egyptians watched in horror. <i>'No land could resist their arms, from Hatti, Kode, Carchemish, Arzawa, and Alashiya … They desolated its people and its land was like that which had never existed'</i><br />
<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Robert Drews, </span>Professor of Classical
Studies at Vanderbilt University,
describes it as "the worst disaster in ancient history, even more
calamitous than the collapse of the Western Roman Empire".</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
So what was the cause? Brevity means I need to skim over some of the controversies. It was not iron weapons. Iron had been known about in the
Bronze Age Anatolia for hundreds of years, but the high temperatures needed for
smelting it and the low carbon products (iron, not steel) made it an inferior
substitute to Bronze. Warriors with cheap quickly produced iron long-swords
sometimes had to straighten them before battle. In areas where tin continued to
be available such as Great Britain with its <span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">tin mines in Cornwall and Devon</span>,
bronze was still preferred (the ‘Atlantic Bronze Age’ lasted till 700 BC and the ‘Nordic
Bronze Age’ till 500 BC). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Iron was suitable for spears, arrow heads and short swords but was only introduced
into weaponry as tin became hard to get. Besides, the invading forces used
bronze, so the point is rather mute.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
Nor was it so called 'new infantry techniques or weapons' (which some
theorists point to with no justification that I am aware of). They talk of
throwing spears and shields as if they are somehow new. It is true that one subgroup of the invaders
(the Sherden) did have a new type of bronze sword (and kilts and horned helmets) and gave the Egyptians a lot of trouble, but this was only one group and a new type of sword that wasn't enough advantage to explain such devastation and its aftermath.<br />
<br />
Infantry simply could not resist the mobility and hit and run technique of
light chariots, where they could be employed. In fact, the invaders were careful to bring
their own chariots with them (disassembled on their ships) and used them in concert. Even after the fall, for more than a hundred years, the might of an army was measured in chariots until their slow decline (over the next thousand years) starting, not with the advent of new infantry techniques, but horse archers (introduced into the region by
Aryans and (Neo-)Assyrians).<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
So why were the invaders so successful? A large part of
the answer almost certainly lies in numbers. As history has shown again and
again, it is hard to impossible for a standing army to counter the mass
migration of a warrior people, and it is difficult to counter the hit-and-run
tactics of coastal raiders. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
To add to this, the regions that were worst affected were
already fatally weakened. The great Dravidian culture of the Indus valley had fallen
half a millennia or more before, due to a combination of climate change and the
Aryan expansion and we now understand something similar but on a far larger
scale triggered the Bronze Age collapse. </div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Multi-site
examinations of pollen samples show a long, very dry, period lasting 150- 300
years. A climatologist suggested that something like the <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">North
Atlantic Oscillation</span> caused mid-winter storms coming from the
Atlantic to be diverted to north of the Pyrenees and the Alps,
bringing colder wetter conditions to Central and parts of Northern Europe,
changes in sea temperature affecting cod fishing, and drought to the
Mediterranean. The drought would impact on dry farming and herding, but also reducing
river flows and annual flooding.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Civilisation, with specialisation, supports an almost infinitely
larger populations than the typical hunter gatherers on a similar site but it
requires trade. Initially this is local trade, but the bigger and more
sophisticated the city becomes the further away might be its food supply. Disrupt
this by sustained raiding of sea and land routes or burning of farms and killing
farmers and the system falls apart.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
Almost by definition, the Bronze Age kingdoms were not
self sustaining. At a minimum they required tin, which is relatively uncommon, to be sourced from places like Afghanistan. The scope and intricacy of
the trade was stunning. It formed a complex web stretching
across the known world from the Himalayas to the Indian Ocean. It also involved
food, several Hittite cities relied on Egyptian grain for their survival and
the Mycenaean world would have relied on the rich grain fields <span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">north of the
Black Sea</span>. The latter became arid,
trade became disrupted and the area depopulated.<br />
<br /></div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
So, the enduring famine and drought triggered a cascade of
civil unrest, mass migration, war and destruction which in the end became
impossible to recover from.</div>
<div class="Myparagraph">
<br />
For an description of the cargo of a ship from the late Bronze Age see <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span><a href="https://www.humanjourney.us/ideas-that-shaped-our-modern-world-section/the-bronze-age-collapse/"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font: major-fareast;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 18px;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span style="color: cyan;"><span class="MsoHyperlink"><span face=""calibri" , sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 107%;">here</span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></span></a>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span><br />
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